Function - strengh and rigidty to the cell wall structure- long straight chain -many hydrogen bonds to form adjacent chains called microfibils to bundle together to form macrofibils= rigid

Starch

Found in plants -insoluble -helixical for compact store -large no of alpha glucose molecules

Glycogen

Branched alpha glucose for large surface area-respiration liver and muscle tissues

Lipids consist of what elements

C,H,0

Fatty acid

Long hydrocarbon + R-COOH

Single bond in fatty acid =

Saturated c-c bonds in r group

Double bond in fatty acid =

Unsaturated c=c bonds in r group

What bonds do lipids have

Ester bonds

Triglyceride=

One glycerol and 3 fatty acids joined by condensation 3x H20 IS REMOVED

Phoshoplipid consist of

Two fatty acids,one glycerol and a phosphate group

Formation of phospholipid

The phospholipid molecule has a polar hydrophillic head (attracts water) containing the phosphate group and a non polar hydrophobic tail consisting of the fatty acid chains

Proteins contain

C,H,N,O

What is sub unit of a protein

Amino acid

What bonds do a primary structure have

-peptide bonds and first sequence of amino acids

Hydroylis of protein by

Heating or acid or enzyme

What is the secondary structure

Coling of the polypeptide chain as result of hydrogen bonds and peptide bonds. alpha helix and beta pleated sheet

Tertiary structure

Further foliding of the polypeptide chain due hydrogen bonds ,ionic and disulphide bridges eg fibrous proteins (kerartin- hair) globular (hormones/ enzymes)

Quaternary structure

A number of indivual polypetide chains eg antibodies or haemoglobin

An ions

Is an atom or group of atoms with an electric charge

Inorganic ion

Doesnt contain carbon so iron fe2+ and phosphate

Water consist of

H20

Does water have a charge

Yes

What happens to between water molecules

Weak hydrogen bonds due to charges attracting it

Functions of water

Metabolic reaction (photosynthesis, digestion/hydroylsis) temperature regulation - specific latent heat of vapourisation solvent

Where is atp made

Respiration - energy

Function of atp

Energy storage molecule it stores it in high energy bonds between the phosphate groups

How does atp release energy

Hydrolysis to adp and pi by ATP hydrolyase

Atp is reformed by

Atp synthase eg photosynthesis

What is a habitat ?

A place where an organism lives

What is biodiversity?

The range of species found in a habitat

Species richness

The no of different species present in a community

What is a community ?

All the organisms of all the species that live in a habitat

Enzymes functions

-SPECIFIC TERTIARY STRUCTURE -SPECIFIC ACTIVE SHAPE -ONLY COMPLEMENTARY TO THE ACTIVE SITE -LOWER ACTIVATION ENERGY

Lock and Key theory

Active site is complimentary

Induced fit theory

The acitve site is not complimentary so it changes the active site

Endings of enymes and their meaning

Ase- carbohydrate - glycosidic bond ease-protein- peptide

Factors affecting rate of reaction

-enzyme concentration (run out substrates for es complexes) -substrate concentration increases so more es complexes then substrate conc is no longer the limiting factor ( max es complexes not enough enzymes) -temperature (kinetic energy increases so more collisions creating es complexes quicker until it reaches optimum temp and the max everything until it suceeds this then causes hydrogen/ionic bonds in enzyme to break Causes enzyme’s ts to change,so active s changes no longer compimentary) PH (ph changes cause hydrogen bonds to break in the specific tertiarty structure)

What is a competitive inhibitor ?

Inhhibitor competes with the substrate for the active site and binds preventing the substrate and active site binding so the rate of r is slower

Keywords for when an enzyme denatures.

Bonds break Tertiary structure Active site shape Not complementary No ES complexes

Enzyme denatures

Bonds break -hydrogen and ionic bonds in the enzyme break Tertiary structure - changes Active site shape -this causes the active site shape to change Not complementary -not complementary to active site So no ES complexes form

Difference between animal and plant cell

Plants cells have cell wall, starch grains and chloraplast and vacuole

Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells differences

Pro= no membrane bound organelles -70s ribosomes - circular dna -plasmids -flagella

Function of the nucleus

Contains DNA which codes for proteins

Function of chloraplast

Carries out photosynthesis to produce glucose

Mitochondria function

Carries out aerobic respiration which releases energy in the form of ATP

Function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Synthesises fats and transports fats around the cell

Rough endoplasmic reticulum FUNCTION

Protein synthesis and transports to golgi body

Function of the golgi body

To modify and package proteins producing vesicles and lysosomes

Lysosomes are

Digesting enzymes

Ribosomes

Carry out protein synthesis

Steps of centrifugation

1. grind cell to break it 2. blend with a cold isotonic buffer solution 3. filter to remove cell debris 4. centrifuge spin 5.increases speed for next pellet

Roles of the cold isotonic buffer solution

Cold- prevents enzyme action isotonic - prevents osmosis buffer - maintains ph so no denaturing

The levels of pellets in a centrifuge

Nucleus Chloroplast Mitochondria endoplasmic ribosomes

A light microscope

-alive or dead organisms -2d -small cells thick or thin samples long wavelength of light so less resolution

Scanning electron microscope (ing-bouncING)

Electrons bounce dead thin samples 3d

Transmisson electron microscope

Electrons pass dead thin samples 2d

Levels of size of measurements

Mm -----> micrometres -----> nanometres x1000 ------------------------ x1000

Equation for magnification

M= o/a

Describe the digestion of starch

Starch enters the mouth and is hydrolysed into maltose by salivary amylase. In the duodenum it is again hydroylsed into maltose by pancreactic amylase which is breaking the glycosidic bonds . then in the ileum the maltose is hydrolysed by membrane bound maltase into alpha glucose

Describe the digestion of proteins

In the stomach the endopeptidase breaks the internal peptide bonds of the protein forming smaller polypeptide chains. In the duodenum the smaller polypeptide chains are hydrolysed by exo and endo peptidase to release amino acids and di peptides. therfore in the ileum membrane bound dipetidase hydrolysed the peptide bond of the dipeptide to form amino acids.

Digestion of lipids

The liver makes bile salts that is stored in the gallbladder . in the duodenum the bile salts emulsify these fats into smaller fats. pancreatic lipase hydrolyses ester bonds in lipids to form glycerol and fatty acids. In the ileum the membrane bound lipase hydrolyse the lipids further into 3 fatty acids and one glycerol and micelles

Absorption of glucose

The SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP allows for sodium ions to be actively transported out of the cell , atp is required as it is against the concentration gradient . this lowers the sodium ion concentration inside the epithelial cell creating a conc gradient. 2. The glucose and sodium ions from the lumen bind to NA+/GLIUCOSE CO TRANSPORT PROTEINas they are facilitated diffused into the cell from (high-low ) 3. GLUCOSE CHANNEL PROTEIN allows glucose to be absorbed from the ep cell into the blood by facilitated diffusion

What do the proteins names change to when its proteins absorption

1. Na+/K pump 2. Na+/amino acid co transport protein 3. Amino acid channel protein

Absorption of fats

1. Micelles form - complex of bile salts , glycerol and fatty acids . Micelles bring glycerol and fatty acids to the cell membrane . glycerol and fatty acids diffused into cell across bilayer 2. ser synthesises to form lipids 2.5 golgi processes triglycerrides with a protein to form chylomicrons in a vesicle . vesicle realeases them so they can diffuse into lacteals. 3. fluid in lacteals drains into bloods

The structure of the ileum

Many long folds called villi . Thick smooth muscle layer , thin muscle layer end epithelium

What is the Villi

The villi are lined with a single layer of epithelial cells. Many small branching blood vessels called capillaries and long lymph vessels called a lacteal

An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose

Sucrase Maltose Lactose Lipid Dipeptide

Absorption of digestive products

Molecules move into the lumen , moves across microvilli of epithelial cells , moved across endothelial cells lining the capillary unit the blood

Cell membranes have a fluid mosaic. what is it?

The phospholipid layer is fluid because the phospholipids are always moving. the proteins are scattered in a mosaic pattern

Functions of the cell membrane

1. transport 2.digestion 3. immune responses

3 factors molecules have to be to cross the phopholipid bi layer

1. small 2. non polar 3. lipid soluble

Diffusion

High to low concentration no energ req

Facilitated diffusion

Polar mols channel or carrier protein high to low

Active transport

Low to high so against conc g requires energy - atp carrier protein ( have specific binding site that the molecule joins too , changing shape of the binding site so the molecule can be transported ).

Co transport

2 mols transported together fd= high to low

Factors affection the rate of diffusion

- temp- kinetic energy - number of proteins -conc gradient -diffusion pathway distance -surface area

Osmoisis

The netmovement of water from an area of high water potental to low

How do polar and lipid insoluble molecules cross the the membrane

Transport proteins - channel or carrier

Describing transport keywords

1. Concentration gradient ( high to low / low to high (atp required ) 2. Transport protein ( channel or carrier ) 3.ATP require aka active transport

Phospholipid bilayer structure

Extrinsic . intrinsic proteins cholesterol

Reducing sugar

Benedicts solution and heat Red – Reducing sugar present Blue – Reducing sugar not present

Non reducing sugar

Do 1st test add an bendedicts and heat. ( reducing sugar) then add acid and heat to break the bonds add alkali (neutralise acid) add benedicts and heat Red –sugar present Blue – sugar not present

Test for starch

Add iodine to the substance a blue/black colour change should be observed

Test for protein

Add copper sulphate Add sodium hydroxide colour change to purple indicates present

What is antigen ?

Causes an immune response

What is a pathogen

A microorganisms that causes disease

The 4 types of cells

-memory t and B cell - Tc t killer cell -Th helper cell - B cell

Vaccinations trigger what immune response

Primary

What is the cellular response

Replication of t killer cells that detect antigens , that release perforating proteins which punch holes to cause the cell to break . The memory t and B cells remain

The humoral response

B cells activate and Replicate and make monoclonal antibodies . They agglutinate (glu =stops movement ) of the pathogen . They engulf and kill the pathogen by phagocytosis.