BIOSCIE (Chapter 1-3) - Details

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Is a proposed explanation for one or more observations

Hypotheses

It must be possible to evaluate the hypothesis through observations.

Testable

That is, able to be proved false

Falsifiable

Just because a hypothesis seems logical does not mean that it is true.

Caution

Are contrived situations designed to test specific hypotheses. allows a scientist to control the conditions under which a given phenomenon occurs.

Experiments

The information collected by the scientist are called

Data

In science can therefore be defined as what we know and understand based on all available information

Truth

S a specialized branch of mathematics used in the evaluation of experimental data

Statistics

Helps researchers summarize data from the sample.

Descriptive statistics

Allows scientists to extend the results they summarize from their sample to the entire population.

Inferential statistics

• To achieve a healthful diet you must eat the proper balance of different kinds of foods so that your body has the raw materials it requires to build, maintain, and repair its basic units, the cells.

NOURISHING BODY

• Nutrients are substances found in food that provide the energy or structural materials required for normal growth, maintenance, and repair. These include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and fiber. • Nutritionists have devised a set of general guidelines to help determine whether you are achieving the right balance of nutrients.

BALANCING NUTRIENTS

Foods such as bread, cereal, rice, and pasta, as well as fruits and vegetables, are rich in sugars called

Carbohydrates

The major source of energy for cells

Carbohydrates

A simple sugar, or monosaccharide, which consists of a single ring-shaped structure

Glucose

Two rings joined together and composed of glucose and galactose.

Disaccharides

A hexose sugar found especially in honey and fruit.

Fructose

Is a disaccharide formed when two monosaccharide . Glucose and and fructose are joined,

Sucrose

Rich foods include beef, poultry, fish, beans, eggs, nuts, and dairy products such as milk, yogurt, and cheese.

Protein

Made of carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens,

AMINO ACIDS

Sometimes called polypeptides because the name for the chemical bond joining adjacent amino acids is a peptide bond.

Polymers of amino acids

-a source of energy -contains a little more than twice as much energy as carbohydrate and protein - help insulate the body from cold weather, and to store energy in case of famine. Some scientists believe that prehistoric humans often faced times of famine and may have evolved to crave fat.

FATS

Fats are more likely to come from plant sources.

Unsaturated fats

Fats, with their absence of carbon–carbon double bonds, do pack tightly together to make a solid structure.

Saturated fats

- organic substances (organic means “carbon containing”) that are only required in small amounts. - not destroyed during use, nor are they burned for energy. Most function as coenzymes, molecules that help enzymes, thus speeding up the body’s chemical reactions. - When is not present in sufficient quantities, deficiencies can result. •

VITAMINS

-A vitamin that can dissolve in water. -carried to the body's tissues but are not stored in the body. They are found in plant and animal foods or dietary supplements and must be taken in daily - Vitamin C and members of the vitamin B complex

Water Soluble Vitamins

- A vitamin that can dissolve in fats and oils - absorbed along with fats in the diet and can be stored in the body’s fatty tissue. - hey come from plant and animal foods or dietary supplements. Vitamins A, D, E, and K

Fat-soluble vitamins

-important for proper fluid balance, muscle contraction, conduction of nerve impulses, and building bones and teeth. - Calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium - are water soluble and are lost during boiling. - aren’t synthesized in the body and must be supplied through your diet.

MINERALS

-means eating the correct amount of food to maintain health. • When foods are eaten, they are broken down into their component subunits and can be used to make a form of energy the cell can use. -Cells power their activities by using a chemical called ATP as their energy currency.

Balancing energy

• is a general term used to describe all of the chemical reactions occurring in the body, but here we are more concerned with metabolic rate and its effect on a healthy diet.

METABOLISM

Discovered Thermus Aquaticus at the Octopus Spring in Yellowstone National Park (1960).

Dr. Thomas Brock

A thermopile bacteria or Thermopile living in the high temperature

Thermus Aquaticus

A chemical that can create long chains of DNA at much higher temperatures.

Taq Polymerase

High temperature process to prepare DNA samples for research and identification.

“PCR” Polymerase Chain Reaction

-hunt for new organisms and new uses of known organisms -search for useful product derived from bio resources that can developed further for commercialization and overall benefit of the society

Bioprospecting

-the variety within and among living species

Biodiversity

Refers to the numbers of different species in the ecosystem

Species

Refers to the variation of genes within all these species

Genetics

A system formed by populations of many different species interacting with each other

Ecosystem

Are biologists who specialize in describing and categorizing a particular group of organisms.

Systematics

Biological Classification attempt to organize biodiversity into discrete and logical categories.

Kingdoms and Domains

Biologists divided life into two categories?

Plants and animals

This tree exemplifies the current state of knowledge regarding relationships among living organisms

TREE OF LIFE

Represent a small remnant of all the species that have appeared over Earth's history.

Living organisms

• Eukaryotic, multicellular, make own food, largely stationary. Examples are pines, wheat, moss, ferns. • Approximate number of known species is 300,000

Plantae

All organisms contain eukaryotic cells

Eukarya

• Eukaryotic, multicellular, rely on other organisms for food, mobile for at least part of life cycle. • Examples are mammals, birds, fish, insects, spiders, sponges. • Approximate number of known species is 1 million.

Animalia

• Eukaryotic, multicellular, rely on other organisms for food, reproduce by spores, body made up of thin filaments called hyphae. • Examples are mildew, mushrooms, yeast, Penicillium, rusts. • Approximate number of known species is 100,000

Fungi

Prokaryotic, mostly single-celled forms, although some form permanent aggregates of cells.

Monera

Prokaryotes with cell wall containing peptidoglycan. Wide diversity of lifestyles , including many that can make their own food. Examples are Escherichia Coli, Salmonella Bacillus, Anthracis anabena, sulfur bacteria. - Approximate number of known species is 4,000

Bacteria

• Prokaryotes without peptidoglycan and with similarities to Eukarya in genome organization and control. Many known species live in extreme environments. • Examples are Thermus aquaticus, Halobacteria halobium, methanogens. • Approximate number of known species is 1,000.

• Archaea

Contains information about how to build an organism.

DNA

Are cellular structures found both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Ribosomes

Brute-force approach to screening species for evidence of cancer-suppressing chemicals.

National Cancer Institute (NCI)

This strategy has been effective in identifying one major anticancer chemical also known by the trade name Taxol, from the Pacific Yew.

Paclitaxel

The evolutionary history of a group of organisms.

Phylogeny

Its relationship to the environment and other living organisms.

Ecology

Descendant species may lose a trait that evolved in their ancestor, or unrelated species may acquire identical traits via a different evolutionary pathway, a process called

Convergent evolution.

Using the knowledge of native people in developing countries to discover compounds for use in wealthy, developed countries is highly controversial. This process is often referred to as

Biopiracy.

A sperm bank; inside its many freezers are vials containing sperm collected from hundreds of men.

Fairfax Cryobank

May allow them to conceive a child despite the lack of a fertile male partner.

Artificial insemination

It tackles the growth and reproduction of an individual

Human Life Cycle

Occurs dozens of times in our zygote which causes genetic variation, differentianting cell types. This is one reason why siblings may look alike and different at the same time.

Cell division

It is like an instruction manual on how to create human beings • An instruction manual can have typographical errors = mutation

Genes

The combination of alleles from our mother's and fathers helps determine what traits we're going to have

The Nature of Inheritance

Formed by mutations and are two or more versions of gene (heterozygous and homozygous).

Alleles

It is the reason why you do not look like your siblings.

Dissimilar Condition

Reproductive cells of human beings, the ova (female) and sperm (male)

Gametes

Type of cell division producing two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. - body cells - growth (bones, blood)

Mitosis

Type of cell division producing four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell. - gametes (sex cells) - reproduction

Meiosis

One of the principles of Mendelian Inheritance. During the gametes production, genes segragate independently to each other.

Independent assortment

-result from the fertilization of a single egg which split in two -can't actually be called identical. While they may have the same physical appearance and have the same set of genes, their DNA is different fron one another (because this can be influenced by the environment/nurture). -always have the same sex. Twins with different sex and has visible difference in appearances are called fraternal twins.

Monozygotic Twins

A debate on which affects our development dominantly

Nature vs. Nurture

Genes and hereditary factors - physical appearance - personality characteristics

Nature

Environmental variables - childhood experience - how we are raised - social relationship - surrounding culture

Nurture

He scientist who first helped to explain the manner in which genes are inherited - He formulated the 3 Laws of Inheritance

Gregor Mendel

Hybrid offsprings will only inherit the dominant trait in the phenotype. The alleles that are suppressed are called as the recessive traits while the alleles that determine the trait are known as the dormant traits.

Law of Dominance

During the production of gametes, two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire one factor from each parent. In other words, allele (alternative form of the gene) pairs segregate during the formation of gamete and re-unite randomly during fertilization.

Law of Segregation

A pair of trait segregates independently of another pair during gamete formation. As the individual heredity factors assort independently, different traits get equal opportunity to occur together.

Law of Independent Assortment

Genetic Composition

Genotype

Physical Traits

Phenotype

May magkaibang alleles sa gene ('hetero' meaning different)

Heterozygous

May parehas na allele ('homo' meaning same)

Homozygous

Hindi nakikita effect nya pag normal or dominant allele kasama nya. Makikita lang effect nya pag parehas na recessive yung kasama.

Recessive

Unlike Recessive na hindi nakikita effect sa normal allele, si Dominant nakikita effect kahit present si normal allele. Nao-overpower nya si Recessive. Laging mas makikita ang effect ni Dominant kesa kay Recessive.

Dominant

Changes sa gene sequence that leads to mutant allele.

Mutations

Indi na nagpro-produce ng active product

Mutant Allele

Nagpro-produce and nagfa-function ng maayos.

Wild Type

Ung may heterozygous (magkaibang allele) na allele, makikita parehas yung effect nya. Walang recessive and dominant, parehas makikita ang effect nito sa offspring.

Codominant Allele

Ginagamit para malaman possibility kung anu-anong genotype pwede makuha ng offspring.

Punnett Square

A neurodegenerative disease caused by repeated DNA sequence leading to production of abnormal proteins which hacks body movements. - The excessive production of glutamine protein affects the Basal Ganglia's (responsible for motor movement) neurons cells and kills them, leading to tissue loss which causes movement problems.

Huntington's Disease

Caused by a defective hemoglobin where red blood cells turn to crescent and sickle-shaped like.

Sickle Cell Disease

Used in determining the possibility of an offspring in inheriting a particular trait

Punnett Square

We can reduce our risk of disease by eating a healthy diet, getting enough exercise, and not smoking. However, the genes we get from our parents are the strongest influences of us in developing risks (family history of an illness). Even though you cannot change your genetic makeup, knowing your family history can help you prepare developing such health problems ahead of time.

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