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Biology I. - Leaderboard
Biology I. - Details
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116 questions
| 🇬🇧 | 🇬🇧 |
| Exogeneous | Arising from outside the body. |
| Neurochemistry | The branch of neuroscience concerned with the fundamental chemical composition and processes of the nervous system. |
| Neuropharmacology (psychopharmacology) | The scientific field concerned with the discovery and study of compounds that selectively affect the functioning of the nervous system. |
| Receptor (receptor molecule) | A protein that binds and reacts to molecules of a neurotransmitter or hormone. |
| Ionotropic receptor | A receptor protein that includes an ion channel that is opened when the receptor is bound by an antagonist. |
| Metabotropic receptor | A receptor protein that does not contain an ion channel but may, when activated, use a G protein system to alter the functioning of the postsynaptic cell. |
| Receptor subtype | Any type of receptor having functional characteristics that distinguish it from other types of receptors for the same neurotransmitter. |
| G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) | A cell surface receptor that, when activated extracellularly, initiated G protein signaling mechanisms inside the cell. |
| Ligand | A substance that binds to receptor molecules, such as those at the surface of the cell. |
| Agonist | A molecule, usually a drug, that binds a receptor molecule and initiates a response like that of another molecule, usually a neurotransmitter. |
| Antagonist | A molecule, usually a drug, that interferes with or prevents the action of a transmitter. |
| Inverse agonist | A substance that binds to a receptor nd causes it to do the opposite of what the naturally occurring transmitter does. |
| Competitive ligand | A substance that directly competes with the endogeneous ligand for the same binding site on a receptor molecule. |
| Noncompetitive ligand (neuromodulator) | A substance that alters the response to an endogoenous ligand without interacting with the endogeneous ligand's recognition site. |
| Modulatory site | A portion of a receptor that, when bound by a compound, alters the receptor's response to its transmitter. |
| Endogenous | Produced inside the body. |
| Amine neurotransmitter | A neurotransmitter based on modifications of a single amino acid. Examples include acetylcholine, serotonin, and dopamine. |
| Amino acid neurotransmitter | A neurotransmitter that is itself an amino acid. Examples include GABA, glycine, and glutamate. |
| Peptide neurotransmitter (neuropeptide) | A neurotransmitter consisting of a short chain of amino acids. Examples include neuropeptide Y, galanin, and VIP (vasoactive intestinal polypeptide). |
| Gas neurotransmitter | A soluble gas, such as nitric oxide or carbon monoxide, that is produced and released by a neuron to alter the functioning of another neuron. |
| Co-localization (co-release) | Here, the appearance of more than one neurotransmitter in a given presynaptic terminal. |
| Glutamate | An amino acid transmitter, the most common excitatory transmitter. |
| Aspartate | An amino acid transmitter that is excitatory at many synapses. |
| Glutamatergic | Referring to cells that use glutamate as their synaptic transmitter. |
| Excitotoxicity | The property by which neurons die when overstimulated, as with large amounts of glutamate. |
| Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) | A widely distributed amino acid transmitter, the main inhibitory transmitter in the mammalian nervous system. |
| Glycine | An amino acid transmitter, often inhibitory. |
| Acetylcholine (ACh) | A neurotransmitter produced and released by parasympathetic postganglionic neuron, by motor neurons, and by neurons throughout the brain. |
| Cholinergic | Referring to cells that use acetylcholine as their synaptic transmitter. |
| Nicotinic | Referring to cholinergic receptors that respond to nicotine as well as to ACh. |
| Muscarinic | Referring to cholinergic receptors that respons to the chemical muscarine as well as to ACh. |
| Catecholamines | A class of monoamines that serve as neurotransmitters, including dopamine and norepinephrine. |
| Indoleamine neurotransmitters | A class of monoamines, including serotonin and melatonin, that serve as neurotransmitters. |
| Dopamine (DA) | A monoamine transmitter found in the midbrain - especially the substantia nigra - and basal forebrain. |
| Mesostriatal pathway | A set of dopaminergic axons arising from the midbrain and innervating the basal ganglia, including those from the substantia nigra to the striatum. |
| Mesolimbocortical pathway | A set of dopaminergic axons arising in the midbrain and inntervating the limbic system and cortex. |
| Substantia nigra (black substance) | A group of pigmented neurons in the midbrain that provides dopaminergic projections to areas of the forebrain, especially the basal ganglia. |
| Striatum | The caudate nucleus and putamen together. |
| Ventral tegmental area (VTA) | A portion of the midbrain that projects dopaminergic fibers to the nucleus accumbens. |
| Norepinephrine (NE, noradrenaline) | A neurotransmitter produced and released by sympathetid postganglionic neurons to accelerate organ activity. Also produced in the brainstem and found in projections throughout the brain. |
| Locus coeruleus (blue spot) | A small nucleus in the brainstem whose neurons produce norepinephrine. |
| Noradrenergic | Referring to systems using norepinephrine as a transmitter. |
| Serotonin (5-HT) | A synaptic transmitter that is produced in the raphe nuclei and is active in structures throughout the cerebral hemispheres. |
| Serotonergic | Referring to neurons that use serotonin as their synaptic transmitter. |
| Raphe nuclei | A string of nuclei in the midline of the midbrain and brainstem that contain most of the serotonergic neurons of the brain. |
| Opioid peptide | A type of endogeneous peptide that mimics the effects of morphine in binding to opioid receptors and producing marked analgesia and reward. |
| Nitric oxide (NO) | A soluble gas that serves as a retrograde gas neurotransmitter in the nervous system. |
| Retrograde transmitter | A neurotransmitter that diffuses from the postsynaptic neuron back to the presynaptic neuron. |
| Binding affinity (affinity) | The propensity of molecules of a drug or other ligand, to bind to receptors. |
| Efficacy (intrinsic activity) | The extent to which a drug activates a response when it binds to a receptor. |
| Partial agonist | A drug that, when bound to a receptor, has less effect than the endogeneous ligand would. |
| Dose-response curve (DRC) | A formal plot of a drug's effects on the y-axis vs the dose given on the x-axis. |
| Pharmacodynamics | Collective name for the factors that affect the relationships between a drug and its target receptors, such as affinity and efficacy. |
| Tolerance | A condition in which, with repeated exposure to a drug, an individual becomes less responsive to a constant dose. |
| Metabolic tolerance | The form of drug tolerance that arises when repeated exposure to the drug causes the metabolic machinery of the body to become more efficient at clearing the drug. |
| Functional tolerance | Decreased responding to a drug after repeated exposures, generally as a consequence of up- or down-regulation of receptors. |
| Down-regulation | A compensatory reduction in receptor availability at the synapses of a neuron. |
| Up-regulation | A compensatory increase in receptor availability at the synapses of a neuron. |
| Cross-tolerance | A condition in which the development of tolerance for one drug causes an individual to develop tolerance for another drug. |
| Withdrawal symptom | An uncomfortable symptom that arises when a person stops taking a drug that he or she has used frequently, especially at high doses. |
| Sensitization | A process in which the body shows an enhanced response to a given drug after repeated doses. |
| Bioavailable | Referring to a substance, usually a drug, that is present in the body in a form that is able to interact with physiological mechanisms. |
| Biotransformation | The process in which enzymes convert a drug into a metabolite that is itself active, possibly in ways that are substantially different from the actions of the original substance. |
| Pharmacokinetics | Collective name for all the factors that affect the movement of a drug into, through, and out of the body. |
| Blood-brain barrier | The mechanisms that make the movement of substances from blood vessels into brain cells more difficult than exchanges in other body organs, thus affording the brain greater protection from exposure to some substances found in the blood. |
| Local anesthetic | A drug, such as procaine or lidocaine, that blocks sodium channels to stop neural transmission in pain fibers. |
| Autoreceptor | A receptor for a synaptic transmitter that is located in the presynaptic membrane, telling the axon terminal howmuch transmitter has been released. |
| Caffeine | A stimulant compound found in coffee, caco and other plants. |
| Adenosine | In the context of neural transmission, a neuromodulator that alters synaptic activity. |
| Transmitter reuptake | The reabsorption of synaptic transmitter by the axon terminal from which it was released. |
| Transporter | Specialized receptors in the presynaptic membrane that recognize neurotransmitter molecules and return to the presynaptic neuron for reuse. |
| Degradation | The chemical breakdown of a neurotransmitter into inactive metabolites. |
| Antipsychotics | A class of drugs that alleviate the symptoms of schizophrenia. |
| Typical antipsychotics | A class of antischizophrenic drugs whose principal mode of action is antagonism of dopamine D2 receptors. |
| Atypical antipsychotics (atypical neuroleptics) | A class of antischizophrenic drugs that have actions other than or in addition to the dopamine D2 receptor antagonism that characterizes the typical antipsychotics. |
| Antidepressants | A class of drugs that relieve the symptoms of depression. |
| Tricyclic antidepressants | A class of drugs that act by increasing the synaptic accumulation of serotonin and norepinephrine. |
| Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) | A drug that blocks the reuptake of transmitter at serotonergic synapses. |
| Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) | A drug that block the reuptake of transmitter at both serotonergic and noradrenergic synapses. |
| Anxiolytics | A class of substances that are used to combat anxiety. |
| Depressants | A class of drugs that act to reduce neural activity. |
| Barbiurate | A powerful sedative anxiolytic derived from barbituric acid, with dangerous addiction and overdose potential. |
| Benzodiazepine agonists | A class of antianxiety drugs that bind to sites on GABAA receptors. |
| Orphan receptor | Any receptor for which no endogenous ligands has yet been discovered. |
| Allopregnanolone | A naturally occurring steroid that modulates GABA receptor activity in much the same way that benzodiazepine anxiolytics do. |
| Neurosteroids | Steroids produced in the brain. |
| Opium (papaver somniferum) | A heterogeneous extract of the seedpod juice of the opium poppy. |
| Morphine | An opiate compound derived from the poppy flower. |
| Analgesic | Referring to painkilling properties. |
| Heroin | Diacetylmorphine, an artificially modified, very potent form of morphine. |
| Opioid receptor | A receptor that responds to endogenous and or exogenous opiates. |
| Periaqueductal gray | The neuronal body-rich region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct that connects the third and fourth ventricles, involved in pain perception. |
| Endogenous opioids | A family of peptide transmitters that have been called the body's own narcotics. The three kinds are nekephalins, endorphins and dynorphins. |
| Enkephalins | One of three kinds of endogenous opioids. |
| Endorphins | One of three kinds of endogenous opioids. |
| Dynorphins | One of three kinds of endogenous opioids. |
| Marijuana | A dried preparation of the Cannabis sativa plant, typically smoked to obtain THC. |
| Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) | The major active ingredient in marijuana. |
| Endocannabinoid | An endogenous ligand of cannabinoid receptors, thus, and analog of marijana that is produced by the brain. |
| Anandamide | An endogenous substance that binds the cannabinoid receptor molecule. |