Chapter 2: Cognitive & Language Development
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Chapter 2: Cognitive & Language Development - Leaderboard
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| What is development? | Development can be seen as the the changes that occur in all of us as we go through our lives. |
| Development exists in many forms. Name 5 of them. | 1. Physical development - change in the size, shape, and functioning of our bodies. It explains why we can run faster as a high school student compared to in elementary school. 2. Personal development - changes in how we understand our selves, values and goals in life. 3. Social development - changes in how we behave and interact with others. For example, like making new friends. 4. Emotional development - changes in how we manage and regulate our feelings. 5. Cognitive development - changes in our thinking that occur as a result of maturation and experience. |
| Give 2 reasons why understanding development is valuable. | 1. First, because all of us have gone through the process, and will continue to go through it our entire lives, it gives us insights into ourselves and the people around us. 2. Understanding development can make us better teachers because it helps us understand why our students think and act the way they do. |
| There are 3 general principles applied to all forms of development (Berk, 2013; Boyd & Bee, 2012; Feldman, 2014). What are they? | 1. Development depends on both heredity and environment. Heredity interacts with the environment, through the experiences we provide, to maximise development. 2. Development process in orderly and predictable pattern. Development is relatively systematic and predictable. For example, we babble before we talk, crawl before we walk, learn concrete concepts before abstract ones. These patterns exists in virtually all human beings. 3. People develop at different rates. While development is generally systematic and orderly, the rate at which individual progress varies. "He's a late bloomer". These differences influence the effectiveness of our instruction and our interaction with our students. |
| Briefly describe what is Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model of development. | Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model offers a comprehensive description of the environmental factors influencing all forms of development (Bronfenbrenner,1979; 2005; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). |
| Illustrate Brofenbrenner's bioecological model of development with a diagram. | The individual > Microsystem > Mesosystem > Exosystem >Macrosystem > Chronosystem |
| What is meant by the ecological component in Bronfenbrenner's model? | The ecological component in Bronfenbrenner's model suggests that our development is influenced by a complex set of systems in the environment, including family, peers, social institutions, such as mosques and schools, and individuals' communities and cultures (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Each system in the model is nested in a larger system, and each layer is viewed as impacting development (Dodge, 2011; Lee, 2010). |
| In Bronfenbrenner's model, what is the microsystem? | The microsystem, the innermost level, is composed of the PEOPLE and ACTIVITIES in our immediate surroundings, such as family, peers, neighbourhood, and school. For example, your parents probably expected you to do your homework, accept responsibility and follow through with your promises. These expectations were all part of the environmental influence on your development. |
| In Bronfenbrenner's model what is the mesosystem? | The mesosystem consists of the INTERACTIONS among the elements of the microsystem, and healthy development depends on how effectively the elements work together (Lee, 2010; Lerner, Lewin-Bizan & Warren, 2011). For example, schools that promote high levels of parental involvement provide a more effective environment for development than those that don't (Lezotte &Snyder, 2011; O'Connor, Dearing & Collins, 2011). |
| In Bronfenbrenner's model what is the exosystem? | The exosystem includes SOCIETAL influences, such as parents' jobs, school systems, and workplace conditions, such as health care, that influence both the mesosystem and the microsystem. For example, parents' jobs affect the amount of time they have to spend with their children, and wealthier school systems are more likely to provide better nurses, counselors, and smaller class sizes. |
| In Bronfenbrenner's model, what is the macrosystem? | The macrosystem is the CULTURE in which a child develops and it influences all the other systems (Cole & Packer, 2011; Goodnow, 2010). For example, some cultures such as Japan and Korea, focus strongly on social influences and conformity while American and European culture focuses on the individual and emphasise autonomy (Goodnow, 2010). |
| In Bronfenbrenner's model, what is the chronosystem? | The chronosystem is the TIME-DEPENDENT element of our environments. These may include changes in the environment, evolution of technology, changes in domestic and world politics, war, economic recession and societal changes. |
| What are some criticisms you can make about Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model of development? | 1. It has a tendency to ignore the role of cognition in development. 2. The way children think about themselves, their abilities, and their relationships with others also influence development. 3. Brofenbrenner's assertions are difficult to examine with research, so his theory is difficult to assess empirically. 4. The model is vague on the role of genetics and hereditary factors on a child's development. 5. While it may seem intuitive, one needs to have a lot of cultural knowledge (macrosystem) to properly explain the individual because according to the theory the topmost layer influences the ones in the bottom. How do we define and talk about culture? Sometimes talking about culture is difficult because of issues like racism, sexism, discrimination, social injustice etc. |
| Is the brain the most complex organ in the human body? | Yes it is. The complexity of an organism's nervous system determines the range of behaviours it's able to produce. Humans have the most complex nervous system of any animal. |
| What is the foundation of the nervous system? | Genetically determined electrical circuits are the foundation of the nervous system. The basic wiring of the brain is similar for individuals within a species; variations at the brain-cell level account for differences. |
| How does intelligence grow? | Intelligence grows as the brain reason and solves problems. The brain is the foundation of the mind and thinking. |
| What is the purpose of language? | Language allows information exchange and creative thought. |
| What does the brain instinctively look out for in the world? | Patterns. The brain tries to make sense of incoming sensory information, recognises conflict, and creates predications and expectations that guide behaviour. |
| What are neurons and how many are there in the human brain? | Neurons are nerve cells and is the learning unit of the brain, central to cognitive development. It is estimated that the brain is composed of between 100 and 200 billion neuron (Carlson, 2011; Seung, 2012). |
| What are dendrites? | Dendrites are the cell body of the neuron. It is has relatively short, branchlike structures that extend from the cell body and receive messages from other neurons. |
| What are axons? | Axons are longer branches that also extend from the cell body and transmit messages. |
| How do neurons communicate with one another? | They communicate but don't usually touch; instead, signals are sent across synapses. Synapses are tiny spaces between neurons that allow messages to be transmitted from one neuron to another. When an electrical impulse is sent down the axon, it produces a chemical that crosses the synapse and stimulated the dendrites of neighbouring neurons. |
| Explain the phrase "what gets fired, gets wired" in terms of cognitive neuroscience. | Frequent transmission of information between neurons can establish a permanent physical relationship between them (Johnson, 2011). These include motor skills and cognitive tasks. Knowledge identified through patterns is retained longer and is more likely to connect to other information (Brunning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011; Schunk, 2012). |
| Should the generation of synapses be promoted in children? | Yes because psychologists believe that generating more synapses than they will ever need allows children to adapt to the wide variety of circumstances they'll encounter throughout their lives (Davidson, 2011; Johnson, 2011). |
| Describe 2 important processes that occur in the brain during development. | 1. Myelination, which occurs when cells grow around neurons to give them structural support, and a fatty coating of myelin, called the myelin sheath, develops to insulate axons and enable them to conduct electrical charges quickly and efficiently. 2. Synaptic pruning, which is the elimination of synapses that are infrequently used. The brain recognises patterns in the environment and reorganises physically, keeping the synaptic connection that are used and discarding those that aren't. Cognitive development involves both creating and eliminating these synaptic connections (Siegel, 2012). |
| According to neuroscience, can you "teach an old dog new tricks"? | Yes using the concept of neuroplasticity. Our brains retain the capacity to change and grow throughout our lives from exposure to positive and enriching experiences (Anguera et al., 2013). |
| Where is the cerebral cortex located in the brain and what is its main function? | The cerebral cortex rests on the top and sides of the brain and much of human thinking occurs in this area (Anderson, 2010; Carlson, 2011). It contributes to 85% of the brain's total weight and contains the greatest number of neurons and synaptic connections (Berk, 2013). |
| What are the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the cortex? | 1. The right controls the left side of our bodies and vice versa. 2. Also, in most people the left hemisphere controls language and logical thinking. The right deals with synthesising information -especially visual images- into meaningful patterns. |
| Should we categorise individuals as being "right brained" and "left brained"? | No. People are neither, and efforts to teach to the left or right brain are both overly simplistic and misguided (Siegel, 2012; Sprenger, 2010). The two hemispheres function as an INTEGRATED WHOLE, especially with respect to the cognitive tasks found ins schools (Carlson, 2011). |
| Where is the prefrontal cortex and what are its functions? | The prefrontal cortex is a portion of the cortex located near the forehead, and is the area of the brain largely responsible for a range of complex human activities. As development occurs, the prefrontal cortex monitors and guides other parts of the brain's activities including planning, maintaining attention, reasoning, decision making, emotional control, and the inhibition of unhealthy thoughts and behaviours (Cartwright, 2012; Casey, Jones, & Somerville, 2011; Kurzwel, 2012; Yang & Raine, 2009). Some authors also suggest that an integral link exists between a person's personality and the fuctions of the prefrontal cortex (DeYoung et. al., 2010) |
| Which part of the brain develops first and which is the last to develop? | The part controlling physical movement develops first, followed by vision and hearing, and ending with the prefrontal cortex. This area may not be fully developed until we are in our twenties. |
| Use neuroscience to explain the sometimes undisciplined and dangerous behaviours of teenagers (drinking and driving, drug use, unprotective sex etc.) | It is the LAG in development of the prefrontal cortex. Rebellious teenagers lack the ability to assess risk and make sound decisions. Therefore, a firm and consistent home and school environment that support learning and development are so important. Rules and limits that simplify decisions help teenagers through this often confusing period. |
| What are some of the controversies and criticisms in neuroscience? | 1. Neuroscience CAN'T explain everything about human behavior (Brooks, 2013). Some things are well beyond what neuroscience is capable of predicting. 2. Be careful of "brain-based learning" and what it prescribes. Make sure it is aligned with proper practices in teaching and learning. 3. Be careful of intensive training for young children (exposing them to foreign languages in pre-school). "No evidence exist for a sensitive/critical period in the first few years of life for mastering skills that depend on extensive training, such as reading, musical performance, or gymnastics" (Berk, 2013, p. 192). Rushing early learning may harm the brain by overwhelming its neural circuits, making it less sensitive to the routine experiences it needs for a healthy start in life. |
| Who was Jean Piaget (1896-1980)? | Jean Piaget was a Swiss developmental psychologist whose career took a major turn when he became fascinated by the changes in thinking that he observed in his own children. This shift led him to a life of research examining the thinking of children as they matured, acquired experiences, and attempted to make sense of the world around them. |
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| Can Piaget's theory of cognitive development explain the dialogue below? Teacher: Adik nak balik pukul 12 ke atau nak balik pukul 1? Child: Saya nak balik awal, jadi pukul 1, cikgu. Teacher: Oh kenapa? Child: Sebab pukul 1 lagi sikit. | Yes, young children (such as 4- and 5-year-olds) believe that going back at 1PM is earlier than 12PM because 1 is a smaller number than 12. |
| Provide a brief overview of Piaget's theory of cognitive development. | Piaget believe that people in general, and children in particular, construct mental structures and ideas in attempts to make sense of their experiences. This helps them achieve a state of cognitive balance and predictability and the view that the world is an orderly place. When they have new experiences that don't make sense to them, this cognitive order is disrupted, and they make an effort to reestablish it. In doing so, their thinking becomes more sophisticated and development advances. These developments is consistent with what we know about neuroscience and they occur in general patterns that fit within approximate age ranges. |
| In Piaget's theory, what is the concept of equilibrium? | Equilibrium is described as the state of cognitive order, balance and predictability where our experiences make sense to us (Piaget 1952, 1959, 1980). The drive for equilibrium is the cornerstone of Piaget's theory as it provides the foundations for the rest of his ideas. |
| What happens when our equilibrium is disrupted ? | When we're unable to explain our experiences using our existing understanding, we're motivated to reestablish it (Berk, 2013; Boyed & Bee, 2012; Feldman, 2014). |
| Is following familiar habits and patterns the result of our need for equilibrium? | Yes. People are describe as "creatures of habit". Most students sit in essentially in the same seat in class. We also fall into familiar patterns of interaction when out with friends. As such, teachers are urged to establish classroom routines as early as possible in the school year (Emmer & Evertson, 2013; Evertson & Emmer, 2013). Doing so helps establish equilibrium by making their school experiences predictable. |
| According to Piaget's theory, what are schemes? | Schemes are mental operations constructed by people, that represent our understanding of the world. Piaget believed that schemes are the building blocks of thinking. For example, when learning to drive a car, we have a series of experiences attempting to start the engine, maneuver in traffic, and make routine driving decisions. As we (cognitively) organise these experiences, they become our "driving" scheme. |
| How do we develop schemes throughout our life? | The schemes we construct vary with age, and they also vary with respect to accuracy and comprehensiveness. Infants develop psychomotor schemes, such as grasping objects and looking for them when they disappear. School-age children develop more abstract schemes like classification and proportional reasoning. There are also content-related schemes such as adding-fractions-with-unlike-denominators, creating-a-persuasive-essay, or reptile schemes (Wadsworth, 2004). Each represent our developing understanding based on our experiences, and they are commonly described as SCHEMAS rather than schemes. |
| According to Piaget's theory what is assimilation and accommodation, respectively? Provide an example for each. | Assimilation is the process of using existing schemes to interpret new experiences. For example, driving a new automatic Tesla using the driving scheme of my parent's automatic Exora. I have assimilated the experience with the Tesla into my driving scheme. Accommodation is the process of CHANGING our thinking to create NEW schemes or ADJUST old ones when they can no longer explain new experiences. For example, I now buy a red Ferrari with a manual shift, so I must now change my thinking about driving and accommodate my driving scheme. |
| In Piaget's theory what is social experience and how does it contribute to our development of schemes? | Social experience is the process of interacting with other people (Piaget, 1952, 1959, 1970, 1980). Social experiences allow us to test our schemes against those of others. When our schemes match, we remain at equilibrium; when they don't, our equilibrium is disrupted, we are motivated then to reestablish it and adjust our thinking. Thus, our development advances (How, 2009, 2010; Siegler & Lin, 2010). |
| Applying Piaget's theory in early childhood education, what can we do in preschool and kindergarten program to help children form new schemas? | We can provide water and sand tables, building blocks and other concrete materials to provide young children with concrete experiences with tangible learning materials. Italian educator, Maria Montessori concluded that learning environments where children simultaneously "worked" on both academic and social activities, were needed for development (Feldman, 2014). Children should be free to explore learning centers that provided hands-on activities and opportunities for social interaction with other students. Make-believe was encouraged with dress-up costumes and other accessories like play telephones. In early childhood education (and education in general) both academic AND social activities are key for holistic student development. |
| In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, what does 'stages of development' refer to? | Stages of development are general patterns of thinking for children at different ages or with different amounts of experience. |
| Outline 3 main ideas in Piaget's stages of development (Green & Piel, 2010; Meece & Daniels, 2011; Miller, 2011) | 1. Moving from one stage to another represents a qualitative change in thinking - a difference in the WAY children think, not the amount they know. 2. Children's development is steady and gradual, and experiences in one stage form the foundation for movement to the next. 3. All people pass through each stage in the SAME ORDER but at DIFFERENT RATES. Students at the same age may be at different stages as a result of different experiences in a certain area (Kuhn, Pease, & Wirkala, 2009; Siegler, 2012). |
| There's 4 stages in Piaget's stages of development. Describe them and what are their respective age groups? | 1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years) = goal-directed behaviour, object permanence. 2. Preoperational (2-7 years) = rapid increase in language ability with overgeneralised language, symbolic thought, dominated by perception. 3. Concrete operational (7-11 years) = operates logically with concrete materials, classifies and serial orders. 4. Formal operational (11- adulthood) = solves abstract and hypothetical problems, thinks combinatorially. |
| Describe the sensorimotor stage in the development of infants (0-2 years old). | In the very early stages of life, objects are literally "out of sight, out of mind." Infants don't initially represent objects in memory. Later, they acquire object permanence, the understanding that objects exists even when out of sight. Young children will learn many concrete concepts (e.g. Mom, Dad, cat) and they form a conceptual foundation for later learning (Rakinson, 2010). Children at this stage also develop the ability to imitate, which allows them to learn by observing others. |
| Describe the preoperational stage (2-7 years old) | Preoperational derives from the idea of "operation" or mental activity. A child who identifies different animals as dogs, cats, and bears, for example, is performing a mental operation. Perception dominates children's thinking in this stage. Additionally many cognitive changes happen in children's such as enourmous progress in language development, growth in ability to use symbols, and learning a huge number of concepts. These concepts are concrete, however, and children in this stage have limited notions of abstract ideas such as fairness, democracy, and energy. |
| In relation to Piaget's theory, describe the preoperational thinkers' inability to conserve. | Conservation refers to the idea that the "amount" of some substance stays the same regardless of its shape or the number of pieces into which it is divided. For example a glass in water in different shaped containers. Children's thinking will feature: 1. Centration - where they focus on the most perceptually obvious aspect on an object or event and ignore other features. For example, height of the water in the glass. 2. Lack of transformation - which is the ability to mentally record the process of moving from one state to another, such as pouring the water from the 1st to the 3rd glass. To them it's a new and different container of liquid. 3. Lack of reversibility, which is the ability to mentally reverse the process of pouring the water from one glass to another. |
| According to Piaget's theory, describe egocentrism in preoperational thinkers. | Egocentrism is the inability to see objects and events from other's perspectives. Preoperational thinkers tend to believe that everyone sees the world as they do, and they ignore the possibility that other perspectives exists. For example, preoperational children will gift gifts that THEY would enjoy, such as a stuffed animal, ignoring the fact that they are giving these to an adult. |
| In relation to Piaget's theory, describe the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old). | The concrete operational stage is characterised by the ability to think logically when using concrete materials. This marks another advance in children's thinking (Flavell, Miller & Miller, 2002). Concrete operational learners also overcome some of the egocentrism of preoperational thinkers. They are able to understand the perspectives of storybook characters and better understand the view of others, which makes them better able to work effectively in groups. |
| Describe classification and seriation which develops in concrete operational thinkers. | 1. Classification - the process of grouping objects on the basis of common characteristics. They can form subclasses of objects but still have problems with more complex classification systems. For example, white circles vs. black circles. A black square would be with black circles but a different subclass. 2. Seriation - the ability to order objects according to increasing or decreasing length, weight or volume. In doing so, they master transitivity, which is the ability to infer a relationship between two objects based on their relationship with a third. However, concrete operational thinkers have problems interpreting sayings and phrases such as "make hay while the sun shines" or "don't count your chickens until they hatch". |
| According to Piaget's theory, describe the formal operational stage (11- adulthood) | Formal operational thinkers can think ABSTRACTLY, SYSTEMATICALLY and HYPOTHETICALLY. They would know that "make hay while the sun shines" would mean something abstract. They can find meaning in the study of abstract topics like algebra in maths, or allegory in literature. Thinking systematically, formal thinkers recognise the need to control variables in forming conclusions. They can also think in about hypothetical scenarios such as imagined conversations in plays and drama. However, when students can't think abstractly, systematically, or hypothetically, they revert to memorising what they can, or, in frustration, give up completely. |
| When we reach formal operational stage, does it include all areas of knowledge? | No, even as adults, virtually all of us are formal operational thinkers only in areas we have considerable experience in (Berk, 2013; Miller, 2011). Research indicates that the thinking of nearly half of all college students isn't formal operational with respect to topics outside their majors (Wigfield, Eccles, & Pintrich, 1996). |
| Describe the neo-Piagetian theory of development. | More recent research has built on and refined Piaget's theory. Neo-piagetian theories of development retain Piaget's basic insights into children's construction of knowledge but focus more on the ways people process information to explain movement from one stage to the next than on Piaget's global stages (Siegler, 2000, 2006). |
| What is working memory in neo-Piagetian theory? | Working memory is the part of our memory system that is capable of holding only small amounts of information for short periods of time while we process and attempt to make sense of it. Neo-Piagetion theory emphasises the important role of working memory and it plays significantly in development (Jack, Simcock, & Hayne, 2012; Morra & Camba, 2009). As children develop, their working memory capacity increases, which allows them to think about more items of information simultaneously as they solve problems (Case, 1992, 1998; Marchand, 2012). |
| In neo-Piagetian theory, what is executive functioning? | Neo-Piagetian theorists suggest advancing executive functioning, such as the ability to maintain attention and suppress intuitive conclusions in favour of more logical processing. For example, some researchers suggest that this increase in executive functioning helps explain why concrete operational thinkers succeed on the conservation-of-number tasks whereas younger children do not (Houde et al., 2011). |
| According to neo-Piagetian theory, what should teachers focus on? | The theory suggests that teachers should consciously focus on helping children acquire learning strategies and develop their executive functioning, which will help facilitate both immediate learning and long-term development (Davidse, de Jong, Bus, Huijbergts, & Swaab, 2011). |
| Describe 4 guidelines for teachers when applying Piaget's theory with students. | 1. Provide concrete experiences that represent abstract ideas. 2. Help students link the concrete representation to the abstract idea. 3. Use social interaction to help students advance and refine their understanding. 4. Design learning experiences as developmental bridges to more advanced stages of development. |
| How do we promote cognitive development in classrooms using Piaget's theory? | 1. Concrete experiences are essential to cognitive development. Provide concrete examples, particularly when abstract concepts are first introduced. 2. Social interaction contributes to cognitive development. Use interaction to assess students' development and expose them to more advanced thinking. 3. Development is advanced when learning task stretch the developmental capabilities of learners. Provide students with developmentally appropriate practices in reasoning that not only matches their current level of understanding, but also encourages them to advance developmentally. |
| Who was Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)? | Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who provided an alternative view to Piaget's theory that suggested developing children as busy and self-motivated individuals -who on their own- explore, form, and test ideas with their experiences. Vygotsky proposed his sociocultural theory of development which emphasises the role of social interaction, language, and culture on the child's developing mind. |
| Provide a brief overview of Vygotsky's theory. | Vygotsky's theory suggests that cognitive development occurs when learners, with the support of more knowledgeable others (MKO) -usually parents, teachers, or other adults- acquire the knowledge and skills unique to a particular culture through the use of social interaction and language. Adults and other MKOs gauge learner's readiness for new tasks and provide the support needed to acquire more developmentally advanced knowledge and skills through language-rich social interactions. |
| What did Vygotsky believed to be central to development? | Vygotsky (1978, 1986) believed that social interaction is key to and directly promotes development. The development of a child's thinking is the direct result of communication and interaction between children and MKOs. |
| According to Vygotsky, when children interact with MKOs, what forms in their minds? | In this interaction between children and MKOs, the children develops new understanding that they wouldn't have been able to acquire on their own. This understanding exists in the form of COGNITIVE TOOLS, the concepts and symbols (numbers & language) together with the real tools that allow people to think, solve problems, and function in a culture. |
| Provide an example of how culturally embedded ideas, along with physical tools can help a developing child's understand their world. | For example, the Yu'pik people, who live in the Bering Sea (west of Alaska), have 99 different ways to describe ice. There are concepts describing wavy ice, shoreline broken ice, small cakes of ice, and thin ice overlapped like shingles (Block, 2007). These ideas and also physical tools; such as harpoons and nets, are introduced to the child by their parents or elders which helps him/her function in their immediate environment. Similarly, concepts like freedom of speech and managing money, together with real tools, like computers and the Internet, help us function in ours. |
| In relation to Vygotsky's theory, what is internalisation? | Vygotsky suggested that children need not reinvent the knowledge of a culture on their own rather, this knowledge has accumulated over thousands of years and should be appropriated (internalised) through social interaction (Leontiev, 1981). Internalisation is the process through which learners incorporate external, society-based ideas into internal cognitive structures. |
| According to Vygotsky, does the cultural development of children appear socially or individually first? | Vygotsky (1978, p. 57) firmly believed that "every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later on the individual level... All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." Vygotsky states that developmental process first occurs at the social level and is later internalised by individuals, and he believes in applies to all forms of development. |
| Vygotsky sociocultural theory suggests that language plays 3 important roles in development. What are they? | 1. Language gives leaners access to knowledge others already posses. 2. It is a cognitive tool that people use to help make sense of their environment. For example, learning a new word and how it's pronounced, its attributes and its real-life application. 3. Language is a means for regulating and reflecting on our own thinking (Winsler & Naglieri, 2003). |
| According to Vygotsky, what is private speech observed in people, especially children? | Observing that children often talk to as they complete various tasks, Vygotsky believed this free-floating speech is the precursor of internal, private speech, or self-talk that guides thinking and action (cakap dalam hati). |
| What is the purpose of private speech in individuals? | Private speech proves an executive function. For example, the ability to maintain attention, monitor thoughts and steer them in productive directions, which become increasingly important as we learn complex ideas and solve sophisticated problems. Private speech forms the foundation for cognitive skills such as remembering and problem solving (Winsler, Fernyhough, & Montero, 2009). Private speech provide the tools for children to examine their thinking, help with problem solving and other higher order functions, and control emotions and actions, all of which mark the beginnings of self-regulation. |
| Do children with private speech learn better than those who don't? | As development advances, private speech becomes silent and internalised but still remains important. Children who use private speech achieve more than their peers, enjoy learning more, and learn complex tasks more effectively than those who don't. The absence of private speech, which helps monitor learning, such as during reading, math, and complex thinking in other areas, may also be a factor in the problems encountered by students with learning disabilities (Friend, 2011) |
| According to Vygotsky what is the zone of proximal development (ZPD)? | ZPD refers to the range of tasks that an individual cannot yet do alone but can accomplish when ASSISTED BY OTHERS (Berger, 2012; Gredler, 2012). Vygotsky (1978, p.106) himself described it as "the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers". |
| There are 5 types of scaffoldings, name them and provide an example for each. | 1. Modelling - an art teacher demonstrates drawing with two-point perspectives before asking students to try a new drawing on their own. 2. Think-alouds - a physics teacher verbalises her thinking as she solves momentum problems on the board. 3. Questioning - after modelling and thinking aloud, the same physics teacher "walks" students through several problems, asking them questions at critical junctures. 4. Adapted instructional aids - an elementary physical educations teacher lowers the basket while teaching shooting techniques and raises it as students' skills improve. 5. Prompts & cues - preschoolers taught that "the bunny goes around the hole and then jumps into it" as they learn to tie their shoelaces. |
| What is the concept of scaffolding? | It's similar to parents helping their small child learn to walk, they often walk behind the child, holding on to their hands as the child take tentative steps. This illustrates the concept of scaffolding which is the ASSISTANCE that helps children complete tasks they cannot accomplish independently (Pentimonti & Justice, 2010; Torrez-Guzman, 2011). |
| Should teachers scaffold to the point of doing the tasks of students? | No. Effective scaffolding should provide only enough support to allow learners to progress ON THEIR OWN. Doing tasks for them can actually delay development. |
| What are the differences between Piaget and Vygotsky's view on the role of culture in development? | Piaget's view - believed that children in different cultures develop in basically the same way. In that respect, he considers his stages of development to be universal and context- and culture-free. Vygotsky's view - believed that culture provides the context in which development occurs; we develop by internalising the cognitive tools embedded within specific cultures. Researchers support this view (Cole & Packer, 2011; Morra, Gobbo, Marini, & Sheese, 2008; Rogoff, 2003). |
| Illustrate some ways of culture providing the context for development? | 1. Certain concepts are unique to certain cultures. Therefore, only individuals of that culture will know that concept as a cognitive tool for both thinking and communication. For example, the term 'bushido' or 'ikigai' for the Japanese people. Some words don't translate their full meaning in different languages 2. Work culture also varies from culture to culture. Some cultures are more time-specific while others are more lax to timings and deadlines. Some cultures gravitate naturally towards cooperation while some cultures lean on competitive tendencies. 3. Different cultures also have different values, ideas and religion that will influence how children develop as they are fully immersed in it. |
| How do cultural and diversity factors impact teaching? | 1. Diversity of our students continue to increase, naturally bringing many different cultures with them to our classrooms. 2. However, some may not bring with them the cognitive tools needed to thrive in our culture, which means that we must provide those tools. 3. We need to provide the concrete experiences needed for non-native English speakers to function effectively in classrooms. 4. The more our students practice using language to describe their surroundings, the more fully their development will be. |
| Vygotsky's theory emphasises the role of culture, social interaction, and language in development. Suggest 4 outlines that can help us apply his ideas in our classrooms. | 1. Embed learning activities in culturally authentic context. 2. Involve students in social interactions, and encourage them to use language to describe their developing understanding. 3. Create learning activities that are in learner's zones of proximal development. 4. Provide instructional scaffolding to assist learning and development. |
| What is meant by effective scaffolding? | Effective scaffolding would adjust instructional requirements to learners' capabilities and levels of performance (Puntambekar & Hubscher, 2005). |
| Is it important to build a lesson plan using items and and cultural elements which most students are familiar and are interested in? | Yes, it is very important because using a familiar topic this way increases students' interest and motivation (Brophy, 2010; Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). |
| When students engage in social interactions in class, suggest 3 ways to encourage them to use language such that it describes their understanding | 1. If students are unable to answer right away, refrain from simply giving them the answer. Rather, we should guide them to make the decision for themselves. This both capitalised on social interaction and also increased the students' motivation because it was their decision rather than the teacher's. 2. The teacher should have students work in groups to solve more complex problems. Ensure that the problem is within the students' ZPD for the lesson and be prepared to adjust it when needed. 3. The teacher should encourage students' use of language as they worked. We should ask students in groups to verbalise what they are doing. Initially, there will be struggle so we must help them, but with practice they will gradually become more articulate with their understanding. |
| How do we tailor our learning activities to suit learners' zone of proximal development? | 1. As the teacher, we should be familiar with the abilities and proficiencies of individual students in the classroom. 2. By observing and listening to students, the teacher can assess their current understanding and then adapt the learning activity so that it is within students' ZPD. 3. Clearly mark levels of development of the concept in the lesson plan from novice, intermediate, adept, master. This is to ensure easier and more consistent adjustments of the lesson plan during the lesson. 4. Elements of differentiated instructions and awareness of learning disabilities also aid it facilitating student learning. |
| What are the similarities and differences between Piaget's and Vygotsky's descriptions of cognitive development? | 1. Both held the now widely accepted idea that learners, instead of passively receiving knowledge from others, actively construct it for themselves. However, Piaget believed that learners construct knowledge essentially on their own, whereas Vygotsky believed that knowledge is first constructed in a social environment and then internalised by individuals. 2. Piaget believed that social interaction and language are primarily mechanisms for disrupting equilibrium, which is then reestablished when people reconstruct their understanding and advance their thinking. Vygotsky, in contrast, believed that social interaction and language directly cause develoment (Rogoff, 2003). 3. Piaget viewed cognitive development as occurring largely outside the boundaries of a particular culture, whereas Vygotsky believed that development provides the cognitive tools that individuals use to function within a particular culture (Bjorklund, 2012; P. Miller, 2011). 4. Both suggest that individuals are cognitively active in constructing knowledge. This suggests we should limit our use of lecturing and explaining as teaching strategies and instead should actively involve students in learning activities. |
| What are the contributions of Piaget's theory of cognitive development? | 1. Was the first to take a comprehensive look at cognitive development. 2. Made educators aware that children's thinking is qualitatively different from adult's thinking. 3. Helped educators understand that learning is an active process during which lectures construct their own knowledge. 4. Has an enormous influence on school curriculum with his emphasis on the importance of experience in development. |
| What are the contributions of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development? | 1. Made educators realise that culture has a powerful influence on cognitive development. 2. Recognised the role that adults and MKOs play in cognitive development. 3. Helped educators understand that learning and development are substantially social processes. 4. Provided the theoretical foundation for many of today's approaches to classroom teaching and learning. |
| Describe some criticisms against Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development. | 1. Was vague about the specific mechanisms of cognitive growth. 2. Failed to account for the impact of individual experiences and their influence on cognitive development. 3. Culture is mainly a question of power. The hegemony of a main culture (e.g. capitalism, authoritarianism, colonialism etc.) will hardly be questioned in a classroom setting. Where is the freedom of thought and expression? |
| Describe some criticisms against Piaget's theory of cognitive development. | 1. Underestimated the abilities of young children and overestimated the abilities of older students. 2. Failed to recognise that students' thinking depends more on their background knowledge and experiences than Piaget suggested. 3. Piaget's stages don't adequately describe development for a number of tasks. 4. Piaget's theory doesn't adequately consider the role of culture in development. 5. Piaget assumes that individuals are readily motivated and industrial individuals to reestablish equilibrium which is not often the case. |
| Theories of language development differ, name and describe. some of them. | 1. Nativist theory. Emphasis hereditary and suggests that all humans are genetically wired to learn a language (Chomsky, 1972, 2006). 2. Behaviourism. Suggests that children learn language through practice and reinforcement (Skinner, 1953, 1957). For example, a 2-year-old picks up a ball and says, "Baa." Mom smiles broadly and says, "Yes, ball! Good job!". Mom saying "Good job!" reinforces the child's efforts, and over time, language is shaped. 3. Social cognitive theory. Emphasises the role of modeling, feedback, and children's imitation of adult speech (bandura, 1986, 2001; Balog, 2010). For example, the father models an expression "Give Daddy some fruit.", the child attempts to imitate it, and he expanded and refined it. 4. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. Suggest that children learn language by practicing it in their day-to-day interactions with others, and adults adjust their speech to operate within childrens' ZPD (Karniol, 2010). For example, infant-directed speech, uses simple words, short sentences, and voice inflections to provide linguistic scaffolding for young children. As their children's language skills advance, parents use bigger words and more complex sentences which adjust the process to each child's changing ZPD (Lieven & Stoll, 2010; Sterponi, 2010). |
| According to the father of nativist theory, Noam Chomsky, what is the language acquisition device (LAD) in humans? | Chomsky proposed an innate, genetically controlled language acquisition device (LAD) which predisposes children to learn the rules governing language. When children are exposed to language, the LAD analyses patterns for the rules of grammar- such as the subject after a verb when asking a question- that govern language. Some research suggests that young infants are indeed neurologically wired or predisposed to attend to human speech (Gervain & Mehler, 2010; Koenig & Woodward, 2010; MacWhinney, 2010, 2011). |
| What are the patterns in early language development seen in children? | 1. To infants, adults should say "ooh" and "aah" and "Pandainya baby!" to encourage infant's gurgling and cooing (Arnon & Ramscar, 2012). 2. Children also gradually learn to use intonation and emphasis to convey meaning (MacWhinney, 2011). Differences in intonation signal the beginnings of using language to communicate. For example, "Cookie" means "That's a cookie" but "Cookie!" says "I want a cookie.". 3. In the later stages of being a toddler, overgeneralisation and undergeneralisation emerge. Overgeneralisation occurs when a child uses a word to refer to a broader class of objects than is appropriate. For example, using "car" to refer to buses and trucks. Undergeneralisation, which is harder to detect, occurs when a child uses a word too narrowly, such as using "kitty" for her own cat but not for cats in general (Feldman, 2014; Gelam & Kalish, 2006). Both are normal aspects of language development. Parents or caretakers should gently correct these instances through routine interaction. 4. Young children bring to school a healthy and confident grasp of language and how it can be used to communicate with others. The importance of this foundation to learning in general (such as reading and writing), can't be overstated (Hammer, Farkas, & Maczuga, 2010; Tompkins, 2014). |
| Elementary students enter school knowing approximately 10,00 words, but by the time they leave, they have mastered more than 8 times as many (Marinellie & Kneilie, 2012; MacWhinney, 2011). How do children achieve that? | 1. Children are immersed in engaging experiences with explicit instruction that focuses on key concepts. Explicit instruction is valuable for learning terms that are unlikely to be acquired incidentally, and it's particularly important for abstract, complex, and technical terms with precise definitions. 2. Children encounter words in context, and this process relates to semantics, which is a branch of linguistic that examines the meaning of words (Mayor & Plunkett, 2010). For example, the sentence "They were too close to the door to close it," has the word close in 2 different meanings, and the meanings are determined by the context of the sentence. |
| What is syntax? | Syntax refer to the rules we use to create meaningful sentences (Haskill & Corts, 2010). For example, "I do love you." and "Do I love you?" contain identical words, but the meanings are very different because of syntax. |
| What is grammar? | Grammar is a SUBCATEGORY of syntax that includes punctuation and capitalisation, which aids in communication. |
| Describe the process of learning syntax and grammar in school. | The learning of syntax and grammar proceeds slowly and with practice (Tomasello, 2006, 2011). During the school years, children gradually learn more complex language constructions, and this development parallels other aspects of cognitive development. For example, "Jack paid the bill" and "She had asked him out" becomes "Jack paid the bill because she had asked him out." The ability to use more complex sentences reflects the child's developing understanding of cause-and-effect relationships. |
| What are the 4 types of language skills? | 1. Listening. 2. Speaking. 3. Reading. 4. Writing. These skills develop sequentially and in that order (MacWhinney, 2011; Otto, 2014). |
| What do the 4 type of language skills have in common? | That regardless of order, they all depend on prior knowledge and experience (Owens, 2012). When children have visited zoos, for example, listening to or reading information about lions, elephants, and giraffes is much more meaningful, as is speaking and writing about them. This is true for all topics. |
| What is the first language skill that children develop? | Listening is the 1st language skill that develops. We know that students -and especially young ones- are not very good at it. Teachers tend to think that good listening means just sitting quietly. We must realise that listening should be a cognitively active process where students think and question themselves about what they're hearing (McDevitt, Spivey, Sheehan, Lennon, & Story, 1990). |