| A confounding variable (random variable) | - Something not controlled by experimenter
- Effects DV
- e.g weather |
| An extraneous variable | - Could effect the DV
- Controlled so that it does not become a confounding variable
- Controlled through STANDARDISATION - making all conditions the same |
| Participant variables | - When participant differences are a confounding variable
- Effects DV
- Controlled by using REPEATED MEASURES |
| Order effects | - When people behave differently because of the order in which the conditions are performed
- Controlled by using REPEATED MEASURES and COUNTERBALANCING |
| Observational studies | - Where researchers observe a situation + records what happens
- But does not manipulate an IV |
| Strengths | - High in ecological validity, no intervention, if observer is undetected no demand characteristics
- See how participants actually behave rather than what they say they do
- Useful as a starting point in research |
| Weaknesses | - Difficult to replicate
- No insight into thinking or feeling
- Little or no control of extraneous variables, cannot make cause + effect statements
- Lack of informed consent + invasion of privacy |
| Structured observation | - Using predefined coding categories for behaviour |
| Advantages of structured observation | - Reliable data, easy to repeat
- Quantitative data
- Directly compare results, can see patterns and relationships
- Easier to establish inter-rater reliability |
| Disadvantages of structured observation | - Can reduce validity
- Open to observer bias |
| Unstructured observation | - Recording everything observed during the observation |
| Advantages of unstructured observation | - Provides rich/detailed data
- Unexpected behaviours are still included
- Provides qualitative data
- Increases validity |
| Disadvantages of unstructured observation | - Can miss behaviour without recording equipment
- Hard to replicate
- Open to observer bias |
| Naturalistic observation | - Observing subjects in their natural environment
- Can be unrealistic, costly, or would affect the subject's behavior
- Its often used where it would be unethical to manipulate variables |
| Controlled observation | - Researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances
- Standardised
- Usually conducted in a lab setting |
| Covert observation | - Participants do not know they are being observed
- Ethical problems, deception and consent
- Increases validity
- Less social desirability/demand characteristics |
| Overt observation | - Participants do know they are being observed
- Reduces ethical issues
- Social desirability/demand characteristics
- Decreases validity |
| Participant observation | - The researcher is involved with the people they are observing |
| Advantages of participant observation | - Only way to observe behaviour (cults/gangs)
- Greater accuracy and detail |
| Disadvantages of participant observation | - Harder to remain objective
- Can influence behaviour, reducing validity
- Ethical issues |
| Non participant observation | - Observing participants without actively participating |
| Advantages of non participant observation | - Easier to remain objective
- No influence on behaviour
- Less ethical issues |
| Disadvantages of non participant observation | - Can’t observe certain behaviour
- Less detail and accuracy |
| Event sampling | - Concentrates on a particular short period of behaviour
- Less likely to miss predefined events
- Increases validity and reliability
- Can miss events |
| Time sampling | - Behaviour on a predetermined checklist is observed + recorded at specific time intervals -e.g. every 10 minutes for 15 seconds
- More representative over time
- Easier, more reliable observations
- Can miss important events |
| Inter rater reliability | - This refers to the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behavior |
| Coding frames | - Allow for more specific behaviours to be observed
- Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or a different subtype within a category |
| Advantages to coding frames | - Fairly simple to carry out
- They provide quantitative data which can be analysed statistically |
| Disadvantages to coding frames | - Restricted view
- Miss important behaviour and the data is not as in-depth as simply observing behaviour which is occurring. |
| Behavioural categories | - When psychologists must decide which specific behaviours should be examined
- Breaking the target behaviour (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed and measured (e.g. hitting or kicking) |
| Hawthorne effect | - When someone's behaviour changes because they know they are being observed |
| How to analyse quantitative data (question in 15 markers) | - Calculations
- Pie charts
- Percentages
... |
| How to analyse qualitative data | - Thematic analysis
- Content analysis |
| Thematic analysis | - e.g. look at what 10 comments from on dreams and look for patterns like older people may talk more about family in their dreams and the younger people may talk about friends in dreams |
| Content analysis | - Making qualitative data into quantitative data e.g. tally amount of times the word ‘tired’ is said when people talk about dreams |
