| Wilson's idea for the treaty | Don't be too harsh on Germany - did believe Germany should be punished, if Germany was punished too harshly they would want revenge
Strengthen democracy in defeated countries - For Wilson, democracy was key to peace, as it would force leaders in defeated nations to listen to their people, who wouldn’t allow them to start another war
Self-determination - wanted small eastern European
people to rule themselves
International co-operation - Nations should co-operate to achieve world peace |
| did everyone agree with Wilson | people wanted peace but didn't know if Wilson's ideas were the best ways to achieve it. Like self-determination as it is difficult because they're scattered across many different countries |
| Did Lloyd George agree with Wilson | Agreed in public, but was less positive in private. Agreed, Germany should not be punished too harshly, or they might seek revenge or led to a communist revolution. |
| What did Lloyd George want | Not to punish Germany too harshly - did believe Germany should be punished, if Germany was punished too harshly they would want revenge, or it could lead to a communist revolution like what happened in Russia in 1917
Trade - didn't want to hurt Germany too much because before the war Germany was their second-largest trading partner
Navy - unlike Wilson, Lloyd George was thinking about the British Empire. He wanted Germany to lose their navy and colonies as they were a threat |
| Pressures on Lloyd George | public pressures for a harsh treaty, British people were not sympathetic as they suffered over 1 million casualties and had been fed anti-German propaganda for 4 years. Lloyd George won the 1918 election by promising to make Germany pay. He had to balance pressures at home and not punishing Germany too harshly |
| Did Clemenceau agree with Wilson | in public, he agreed with his aim for fair and lasting peace. He found Wilson very difficult to work with, he never publicly criticised the 14 points, but he did mention that even god only needed 10 commandments. Major disagreement was over Germany, as Clemenceau saw it as a way to cripple Germany so it could not attack France again |
| Effect of the war on France vs Germany | France suffered damage to it's land, industry, people and self-confidence. Over two-thirds of the men who had served in the French army had been killed or wounded. Germany seemed to many French people very powerful. German land and industry had not been as badly damaged as France's. France's population (around 40 million) was in decline compared to Germany's (around 75 million). |
| Pressures on Clemenceau | French people wanted a treaty that would weaken Germany as much as possible. The French president wanted Germany broken up to many smaller states. Clemenceau knew he would have to compromise but had to show he was aware of the public opinion of France |
| What did Clemenceau and Wilson disagree about | The USA suffered less than France in the war, leading to tension between Clemenceau and Wilson. Clemenceau opposed Wilson's lenient stance on Germany, particularly over the Rhineland and Saar. Wilson eventually conceded, but in return, Clemenceau and Lloyd George supported his ideas for Eastern Europe, despite their doubts. |
| What did Clemenceu and Lloyd George disagree about | Clemenceau felt that Lloyd George was willing to treat Germany fairly in Europe, where France was more at risk, but not when it came to Germany's navy and colonies, which threatened Britain more directly. |
| What did Lloyd George and Wilson disagree about | Lloyd George was mainly unhappy with point 2 of Wilson's Fourteen Points, which allowed all nations free access to the seas. Wilson’s ideas about self-determination also threatened the British government, as the British Empire ruled millions of people worldwide from London. |
| 5 terms of the ToV | war guilt, reparations, German territories' and colonies, Germany's armed forces, League of Nations |
| war guilt | this clause was simple but was seen by the Germans as extremely harsh, Germany had to accept blame for starting the war |
| reparations | Germany had to pay reparations of 6,600 million pounds |
| German territories and colonies | forbade Anschluss with Austria, lost 10% of its land in Europe, all of their overseas colonies, 12.5% of its population, 16 percent of coalfields and almost half f its iron and steel industry |
| Germany's armed forces | army was limited to 100,000 men, conscription was banned, navy was limited to 6 battleships, Rhineland was to be demilitarised |
| German reaction to war guilt and reparations | war guilt clause was particularly hated as Germany did not feel like hey started the war and the guilt should at least be shared. Germans were bitter they had to pay for all the damage caused even though the German economy was severely weakened |
| Germans reaction to disarmament | Felt it was very unfair. An army of 100,000 was very small for a country of Germany's size, the army was also a symbol of German pride. Also, despite the 14 points, none of the allies disarmed to the same extent |
| German reaction to territories | Major loss for German pride, as the Saar and upper Silesia were important industrially. as Germany's was losing colonies, Britain and France were increasing their empires |
| German reaction to non-representation | Angry, their governments were not represented at peace talks and were forced to accept a harsh treaty. |
| German reaction to the 14 points and the LoN | Germany was not being treated the same, self-determination was given to countries like Estonia, but German-speaking peoples were being hived off to new countries like Czechoslovakia to be ruled with non-Germans. Further insulted by not being invited to join the LoN |
| political violence due to the treaty | right wing opponents to Ebert hated the treaty. In 1920, they attempted a revolution known as the Kapp Putsch but was defeated by a general strike. Political violence remained a threat, with many assassinations and uprisings such as the Munich Putsch. |
| Conflict in the Ruhr | The first installment of 50 pounds of 6600 million pounds was paid in 1921 but nothing in 1922. Ebert tried negotiating but the French ran out of patients. In 1923 the french and belgium tropps entered the Ruhr and took what was owed in the form of raw materials and goods which was legal under the terms of the treaty |
| Result of the conflict in the Ruhr | The German government ordered workers to go on strike, so there was nothing being produced to be taken. The French reacted by killing over 100 workers and expelling 100,000 protesters, but the strike also meant there were no goods to trade, leading to hyperinflation. |
| Hyperinflation | the government started printing money, causing hyperinflation. Money was worthless, so prices shot up. Government and industrial powers were able to pay off their debts, but middle class people lost all of their savings. |
| People who said the treaty was unfair | None of the big tree were happy with the treaty, and commentators at the time also felt this too. Of course, Germany felt it was unfair |
| League of Nations | set up as an internation "police force". Germany was not allowed to join the League until it had shown that it was a peace loving country |
| Aims of the league | avoid aggression between nations, facilitate disarmament, improve living and working conditions globally, enhance global co-operation through trade |
| what did USA want the LoN to look like | Like a world parliament – reps of countries to meet and discuss matters that affected them all |
| what did UK what the LoN to look like | Simple, to meet only in times of emergency |
| what did France what the LoN to look like | Strong with its own army |
| rules of the league | - all major nations to join (except Germany and Russia because they were communist)
- members to disarm
- accept all decisions made by League,
- if one country had a problem with another, take it to the league
- if any member went to war, other members would stop trade with them and send troops if necessary |
| why did the USA never join the league | It was seen as linked to the TOV, deemed unfair by many Americans, Isolationism, they had no need to join because the WW1 had made them rich and powerful, they wanted to trade, congress did not approve, isolationist policy |
| 5 main areas of the league | - The Assembly
- The Council
- The Permanent Court of International Justice
- The Secretariat
- The International Labour Organisation (ILO) |
| The assembly | league's parliament, every league country sent a representative, votes on new members the budget and main agenda, met once a year, decisions had to be unanimous |
| the council | This was designed to settle major disputes and had 4 permanent members (Britain, France, Italy and Japan) as well as temporary members voted in by the Assembly. Each permanent member had a veto, whilst the Council could also administer economic sanctions or muster an international force if agreed |
| The Permanent Court of Justice | This was the League's court. It was the Court which would give decisions on border disputes, and passed any laws. It also gave legal advice to the Assembly and Council. Primarily, its responsibility came in upholding or amending peace treaties. |
| the secretariat | kept records of the league's meetings and prepared reports for the different agencies of the league |
| the ILO | brought together employers, governments and workers representatives once a year and its aim was to improve conditions of working people throughout the world, it collected information and advised governments |
| the leagues 4 commissions | the mandates commission, refugees committee, slavery commission, health committee |
| the mandates commission | the peace settlements had led to countries losing their overseas colonies to countries like Britain and France, commission to report on how people in those ex-colonies were being treated, made sure Britain, France, etc. were looking after the people, not acting in their own interests |
| the refugees committee | looked after WW1 refugees, some trying to get back home, others had no home to get to, particularly important in Eastern Europe |
| the slavery commission | worked to abolish slavery worldwide, particular issue in East Africa
also many workers who weren’t slaves but were treated very poorly |
| the health committee | educate people about health and sanitation, making vaccines accessible |
| the mandates commission successes | this made sure former German and Austro-Hungarian colonies were run smoothly after WW1 |
| the refugee committee successes | made it easier for refugees to travel using the Nansen passport, 400,000 prisoners were returned home, very successful in Turkey with stamping out cholera and smallpox in camps, however they were constantly short of funds |
| the slavery commission successes | freed 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone, organised raids against slave owners, bought the death rate of African workers from 50 percent down to 4 |
| the health committee successes | it sponsored research into infectious diseases, important for helping to develop vaccines and medicines to fight deadly diseases, even the USSR took advice from the health committee, its work was used to form WHO |
| ILO successes | banned poisonous lead paint. introduced the 48-hour week, reduces hours small children worked, didn't have a lot of funds so could only name and shame countries that broke the rules however they were still influential |
| boarder dispute successes in the 1920 | Aaland islands, Upper Silesia, Bulgaria |
| about the Aaland islands | Sweden invaded this tiny collection of Scandinavian islands. Finland appealed to the league, both sides were threatening to go to war, they discussed the situation with both countries, before deciding it should remain with Finland. |
| about upper Silesia | This Polish-dominated part of Germany was allowed to hold a plebiscite on who to belong to. The vote was close, so it was divided along regional lines. Everyone was happy |
| about Bulgaria | 1925 Greek troops invaded Bulgaria after some Greek soldiers were killed, so Bulgaria appealed for help. the League demanded both sides stand their forces down and Greek soldiers withdraw from Bulgaria. The league sent assessors and sided with Bulgaria and Greece paid 45,000 in compensation. Greek obeyed |
| failures of the leages boarder disputes | Vilna, Corfu, Geneva protocol |
| about Vilna | 1920 Poland and Lithuania both wanted the city of Vilna. Poland then marched their troops in. The league called for a plebiscite. Poland disagreed and it didn’t happen. Lithuania remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927 |
| about Corfu | Albania and Greece were having a border dispute. Italian league representatives were sent out. When one –Tellini—was murdered in Greek territory, Italy retaliated by bombing Corfu! They demanded compensation. league agreed and Greece had to pay it |
| difference between Bulgaria and Corfu | Corfu - Greece killed Italy person, Italy invaded, Greece paid
Bulgaria - Bulgaria killed Greek person, Greece invaded, Greece paid |
| Geneva protocol | Britain and France created it, and it shows that is 2 league members were in a dispute they asked the League for help. There was a change in government and the new one didn't sign it, worried that Britain would be forced to agree to something not in its interests. |
| The great depression effects (4) | - In Italy, economic problems encouraged Mussolini to try to build an overseas empire
- important political changes within countries like how poor economy led people to elect the Nazi's to solve economic and social problems
-LoN were more worried about their economy than internation disputes
- USA declined to endorse sanctions, given the state of its own trade |
| Manchuria's invasion 1 | in 1931 Chinese troops agedly attacked the south Manchurian railway which the Japanese army controlled, Japan used this as an excuse to invade and set up a government in Manchuria. Japan's civilian government protested, but the military were now in charge |
| China appealing | China appealed to the League, but Japan told the League it was simply a local dispute. The League had to act. Unfortunately, they sent Lord Lytton as their reporter on a boat. It took him a year to get to Manchuria; September 1932 |
| Outcome of the League getting to Manchuria | Lytton quickly concluded that Japan had been in the wrong and that Manchuria was rightfully Japanese. The League decided to take it to a vote, whilst Japan just pressed on deeper into China. The vote came out in favour of China. Disgusted, the Japanese government stormed out of the League and invaded jehol |
| The league responds to Jehol invasion | sanctions were discussed, but nobody wanted to after the depression and without the USA it would be useless. They were worried Japan would be mad about any sanctions and would retaliate, only USA or USSR had the resources to remove Japan and they weren't member |
| why did disarmament fail | no country wanted to be the first to disarm |
| why did Mussolini invade Abyssinia | raw materials and an empire to fund his ever-growing military, glory, revenge as Italy tried to invade years before |
| how Abyssinia crisis started | dispute between Italy and Abyssinia at the Wal-Wal oasis inside Abyssinia and Mussolini claimed it was Italian land and began preparing his army for invasion, so Abyssinia appealed to the league |
| The league and Mussolini "dealing" with the dispute | between Jan 1935 - Oct 1935 Mussolini was supposedly negotiating with the league to settle the dispute, but he was shipping his army to Abyssinia. Britain and France pretended not to notice because they wanted an ally against the increasingly militaristic Hitler. In fact, they even signed the Stressa Pact between them all promising to stand up to German aggression |
| public outrage about Mussolinis actions | majority of British people supporting using military forces to defend Abyssinia if necessary. British politicians started to act tough as there was an election soon. British foreign minister Hoare made a speech about value of security to please nations however the League did nothing to try stop Mussolini |
| league proposes a plan to Mussolini | after 8 months of deliberation a committee reported nobody was to blame for Wal-Wal and the league put a plan in place to give Mussolini some of Abyssinia, but he rejected it |
| Sanctions on italy | A committee formed to pick fair sanctions when Mussolini began a full-scale invasion of Abyssinia in Oct 1935 and it was clear that Italy was stronger. The league banned loans, imports, and sales of arms to Italy. The league put off a decision on the oil export sanctions as it could harm the economy by fewer and the USA might not be in support it. Britain and France, who controlled the Suez Canal, chose not to block it to Italy's supply ships, though doing so may have ended it fast, Because they felt that it might start a war with Italy. |
| Hoare-Laval pact | Hoare and Laval plead with Mussolini behind the scenes, promising to give him 2/3rds of it in exchange for calling off the invasion but Selassie didn't agree to this. The Plan is leaked and they were both sacked. the league worked out if they stopped oil sales it could work, but it was too late and USA would not have supported it due to the pact and instead sent more oil to Italy |
| outcomes of Abyssinia | The french were afraid as Hitler had occupied the Rhineland and were desperate to gain the support of Italy and were prepared to give them all of Abyssinia but by May 1936 Italy had taken Abyssinia and haile Selassie was forced into exile |
| implications of Abyssinia on the league | collective security had failed, and so had the league. British and French hoped that how they handled Abyssinia would strengthen their position against Hitler, but this was clearly not the way as Hitler and Mussolini signed the Rome-berlin axis in Nov 1936 |
| how the league was a success | Commissions work
Small disputes
Global Trade |
| how the league wasn't a success | Disarmament
Aggression
Self-interest |
| what years were the Korean War | 1950-1953 |
| background for the Korean War | Korea was ruled by Japan until 1945. At the end of the second world war the north remained communist controlled, with a communist leader. The south was anti communist, it wasn't very democratic but it was anti enough to gain the support of the USA. |
| pre/start of the Korean war | in 1950 open warfare started, northern troops (communist) overwhelmed the souths (anticommunist) forces. By September 1950 all except a small corner of south east Korea was under communist control |
| USA's involvement in the Korean War (getting the UN involved) | Truman immediately sent advisers, supplies and warships to Korea. He knew he needed the support of the UN so he put pressure on them to condemn the actions of the North Koreans and withdraw troops. The USA was the single biggest contributor to the UN budget and therefore had the biggest influence. Normally, the Soviet Union would have used their veto to block the call for action by the UN. However they were boycotting the UN at this time over another issue. |
| USA's effect on the North Korea | UN troops stormed ashore in September 1950, at the same time UN forces and South Korean troops advanced. The north Koreans were driven back past their original boarder |
| UN forces continue to press on in Korea | MacArthur quickly achieved the original goal of the UN of removing removing North Korean troops from South Korea, but the Americans did not stop. Despite warnings from China that if they continued they would join the war, the UN approved a plan to advance into North Korea. By October, US forces had reached the Yalu River and the border with China. It was clear that MacArthur and Truman wanted to remove communism from Korea fully. |
| the UN force retreats in Korea | MacArthur underestimated the power of the Chinese. Late in 1950, 200,000 Chinese troops joined the North Koreans and attacked. They had soldiers who were strongly committed to Communism and had been taught to hate the Americans. The United Nations forces were pushed back into South Korea. Conditions were some of the worst the American forces had known. The Chinese forces were more familiar with fighting in these conditions. |
| MacArthur gets sacked | Truman and MacArthur fell out. MacArthur wanted to carry on the war. He was ready to invade China and even use nuclear weapons if needed. Truman, felt that saving South Korea was good enough. The UN convinced Truman that an attack on China was too risky. However, in March 1951 MacArthur blatantly ignored the UN and threatened an attack on China. In April Truman fired MacArthur as he rejected his aggressive policy towards Communism. Truman effectively returned to the policy of containment and accepted that he could not drive the Communists out of North Korea. |
| peace talks in Korea | The fighting finally reached stalemate around the 38th parallel in the middle of 1951. Peace talks between North and South Korea began in June 1951, although bitter fighting continued for two more years. The casualties on all sides were immense particularly among civilians. |
| armistice in Korea | in 1952 Truman was replaced by Eisenhower, who wanted to end the war. Stalin's death in 1953 made the Chinese and North Koreans less confident, so an armistice was signed in July 1953. The border was pretty much the same as when the war started |
| advantages and disadvantages of the Korean War for the USA | The cost and the casualties were high but it showed that the USA had the will and the means to contain Communism. South Korea remained out of Communist hands. But it showed the limits of the policy. The USA had to accept that North Korea remained Communist. It also highlighted tensions among American leaders. Hardline anti-Communist politicians and military leaders wanted to go beyond containment - to push back Communism and thought that Truman had shown weakness in not going for outright victory. |
| about Cuba and Batista | Cuba had been an American ally for a long time, American's owned most of the businesses there and had a massive naval base. The Americans also provided the Cuban ruler, Batista economic and military support. Batista was a dictator and was hated among Cubans but were liked by Americans as he was very anti-communist. |
| enter Fidel Castro | There was plenty of opposition to Batista in Cuba itself. In 1959, after a three-year campaign, Fidel Castro overthrew Batista. Castro was charming, clever but ruthless. He quickly killed, arrested or exiled many political opponents. Castro was also a clever propagandist. He was very charismatic, and he had a vision for a better Cuba which won over the majority of Cubans. |
| American reaction to Castro being leader | The USA was taken by surprise at first and decided to recognize Castro as the new leader of Cuba. But within a short period of time, relations between the two countries grew worse. There were thousands of Cuban exiles in the USA who had fled from Castro's rule. They formed powerful pressure groups demanding action against Castro. Castro took over some American-owned businesses in Cuba and distributed it to his supporters among Cuba's peasant farmer population. |
| America’s hostile approach towards Castro | June 1960, Eisenhower authorised the US CIA to investigate ways of overthrowing Castro. The CIA provided support and funds to Cuban exiles and investigated ways to disrupt the Cuban economy. American companies working in Cuba refused to co-operate with any Cuban businesses which materials imported from the USSR. The American media also broadcast a relentless stream of criticism of Castro and his regime. |
| Castros response to Americas hostility | Castro had a mixed approach. He assured Americans living in Cuba that they were safe and he allowed the USA to keep its naval base. He said he simply wanted to run Cuba without interference. However, by the summer of 1960 he had allied Cuba with the Soviet Union. Soviet leader Khrushchev signed a trade agreement giving Cuba $100 million in economic aid. Castro also began receiving arms from the Soviet Union and American spies knew this. |
| America's potential invasion of Cuba | In January 1961 the USA's new President, Kennedy, broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba. Castro thought that the USA was preparing to invade his country. The Americans did not invade directly, but Kennedy was no longer prepared to tolerate a Soviet satellite in the USA's 'sphere of influence'. The plans to overthrow Castro which were begun under Eisenhower began to take shape |
| the bay of pigs | instead of a direct invasion, President Kennedy supplied arms, equipment and transport for 1,400 anti-Castro exiles to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro. In April 1961 the exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs. They were met by 20,000 Cuban troops, armed with tanks and modern weapons. The invasion failed disastrously. Castro captured or killed them all within days. |
| the impact of the invasion on Cuba | The half-hearted invasion suggested to Cuba and the Soviet Union that, despite its opposition to Communism in Cuba, the USA was unwilling to get directly involved in Cuba. Khrushchev was scornful of Kennedy's pathetic attempt to out Communism from Cuba. Historians too argue that the Bay of Pigs fiasco further strengthened Castro's position in Cuba. It suggested to the USSR that Kennedy was weak. It also made Castro and Khrushchev very suspicious of US policy. |
| Khrushchev arms Castro | After the Bay of Pigs Soviet arms flooded into Cuba. In May 1962 the Soviet Union announced publicly for the first time that it was supplying Cuba with arms. By July 1962 Cuba had the best-equipped army in Latin America. By September it had thousands of Soviet missiles, plus many other weapons and 5,000 Soviet technicians to help to maintain them. |
| Nuclear missiles or not in Cuba | America was concerned but willing to tolerate conventional arms in Cuba. The main issue was whether the Soviet Union would place nuclear missiles there, which seemed unlikely due to the risks. On September 11th, Kennedy warned the USSR against making Cuba a nuclear base. The USSR assured the USA that it had no need or intention of deploying nuclear missiles in Cuba. |
| The October crisis | On October 14, 1962, an American spy plane photographed nuclear missile sites in Cuba, built by the USSR. Further photos confirmed some sites were nearly complete, while others were still under construction. Some sites already had missiles, and experts estimated the most advanced could be operational in seven days. Additionally, spy planes reported twenty Soviet ships coming to Cuba carrying missiles. |
| 4the blockade against Cuba | President Kennedy was informed of the missile build-up in Cuba and announced a blockade, demanding the Soviet Union withdraw its missiles. Khrushchev responded that Soviet ships would not observe the blockade but did not confirm the missiles' presence. As the blockade began, missile-carrying ships and a Soviet submarine neared the blockade zone. However, at 10:32 a.m., the twenty Soviet ships closest to the zone stopped or turned around. |
| The first letter from Khrushchev | Despite the Soviet ships turning around, photography showed rapid progress on the missile bases in Cuba. Kennedy received a letter from Khrushchev stating the missiles were defensive. Khrushchev suggested that if the USA assured it would not attack Cuba and lifted the blockade, the removal or destruction of the missile sites could be considered. This was Khrushchev's first admission of the missiles' presence |
| The second letter from Khrushchev | Khrushchev sent another letter stating that the removal of missiles from Cuba was conditional on the USA withdrawing its missiles from Turkey. An American plane was shot down over Cuba, killing the pilot. Despite advice to launch an immediate attack, Kennedy delayed and decided to ignore the second letter. Instead, he accepted Khrushchev's terms from October 26, warning that if the Soviet Union did not withdraw, an attack would follow. |
| Why did the Soviet Union place nuclear missiles on Cuba | The USSR must have known that it would cause a crisis. They had no attempt at all to camouflage the sites, and even allowed the missiles to travel on open deck. This has caused much debate as to what Khrushchev was really doing. Some explanations include, to bargain with USA, to test the USA, to trap the USA, to close the missile gap, to defend cuba, to strengthen his own position in the USA |
| to bargain with the USA reasoning explained | If Khrushchev had missiles on Cuba, he could agree to remove them in return for some American concessions. |
| to test the USA reasoning explained | In the strained atmosphere of Cold War politics the missiles were designed to see how strong the Americans really were - whether they would back off or face up. |
| to trap the USA reasoning explained | Khrushchev wanted the Americans to find them and be drawn into a nuclear war. He did not even try to hide them. |
| to close the missile gap reasoning explained | Khrushchev was so concerned about the missile gap between the USSR and the USA that he would seize any opportunity he could to close it. With missiles on Cuba it was less likely that the USA would ever launch a first strike against the USSR. |
| to defend Cuba reasoning explained | Cuba was the only Communist state in the Western hemisphere, and it had willingly become Communist, rather than having become Communist as a result of invasion by the USSR. Just by existing, Castro's Cuba was excellent propaganda for the USSR. |
| to strengthen his own position in the USSR reasoning explained | The superiority of the USA in nuclear missiles undermined Khrushchev's credibility inside the USSR. His critics pointed out that he was the one who had urged the USSR to rely on nuclear missiles. Now, could he show that the USSR really was a nuclear power? |
| What years were the Vietnam War | 1955-1975 |
| background of Vietnam | Vietnam was ruled by France, whose harsh treatment led to the rise of the Viet Minh under communist leader Ho Chi Minh. In 1945, as the French sought to reclaim control from Japan, Ho resisted, leading to nine years of fighting. The Viet Minh controlled the North, while the French held much of the South. Despite $500 million annually in U.S. support, the French were unable to maintain control and withdrew in 1954. A peace conference in Geneva resulted in Vietnam being divided into North and South until elections could be held. |
| USA gets involved before elections are held in Vietnam | Under the ceasefire terms, elections were to be held within two years to reunite Vietnam. However, in 1954, the USA prevented these elections, fearing a Communist victory. President Eisenhower believed that China and the USSR aimed to spread Communism, known as the domino theory. Determined to stop Communism in Vietnam, seen as the first domino, the Americans intervened. |
| Deim’s regime | In 1955, the USA supported Diem in establishing the Republic of South Vietnam due to his anti-Communist stance. However, Diem's regime was unpopular, treating peasants poorly, disrespecting Buddhists, and engaging in corruption by appointing family and supporters to power and refusing elections. Despite this, the USA provided around $1.6 billion in support during the 1950s. Diem was overthrown by his own military leaders in November 1963. |
| The emergence of the Viet Cong | The anti-Communist government actions increased support among the peasants for the Viet Cong. Viet Cong included South Vietnamese opponents of the government, but also Communist North Vietnamese, taking their orders from Ho Chi Minh. Peasants who did not support the Viet Cong faced intimidation and violence from them. |
| The start of the guerilla war | The Viet Cong also started a guerrilla war against the South Vietnamese government. Using the Ho Chi Minh trail they sent reinforcements and supplies to guerrilla fighters. These fighters attacked South Vietnamese government forces, officials and buildings. They slowly made the countryside unsafe for government forces. They also attacked American air force and supply bases. |
| South Vietnamese strategic plan after the beginning of the guirella warfare | The South Vietnamese moved peasant villages from Viet Cong-controlled areas to areas controlled by the South Vietnamese government. The Americans helped by supplying building materials, money, food and equipment for the villagers to build improved farms and houses. This policy backfired, as the peasants resented it — and corrupt officials pocketed money meant to buy supplies for the villagers. |
| US involvement in Vietnam escalates | By 1962 Kennedy was sending military personnel/advisors to help the South Vietnamese fight the Viet Cong. Kennedy said he wouldn’t just jump into a war. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963. His successor, Lyndon Johnson, was more prepared to commit to war. |
| the Tonkin gulf resolution | In August 1964, North Vietnamese patrol boats opened fire on US ships in the Gulf of Tonkin. US Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, giving Johnson power to take all measures to get security back basically meaning he could take USA into a war. |
| Operation Rolling Thunder | In February 1965 the US started a gigantic bombing campaign against North Vietnamese cities, factories, army bases and the Ho Chi Minh Trail, which continued for three years. On 8 March 1965, 3,500 US marines and combat troops, came ashore at Da Nang. The USA was now officially at war in Vietnam. |
| Viet Cong tactics and troops - guerilla warfare | did not wear uniforms to make them more disguised, no known army base or headquarters, worked in small groups, attacked then disappeared into jungles villages or tunnels, aimed to wear down enemy soldiers, US soldiers lived in fear of booby traps, pits filled with sharpened bamboo stakes, 11% of US deaths were booby traps and 51% were ambushes or hand-to-hand combat, preferred close-quarter fighting because they knew Americans wouldn't risk bombing their own troops |
| Viet Cong tactics and troops - civilians | fighters were courteous and respectful to peasants and even helped them in the fields, but they were prepared to kill peasants who opposed them |
| Viet Cong tactics and troops - supplies | depended on supplies from the North Vietnamese through the Ho Chi Minh trails. US and South Vietnamese planes bombed constantly but 40,000 Vietnamese worked to keep it open at any cost |
| Viet Cong tactics and troops - commitment | the total Viet Cong and North Vietnamese dead in the war estimated at 1 million, much higher than US however there were always replacement troops available, and they simply refused to give up |
| US tactics and troops - bombing | was their main tactic bombing military, Ho Chi Minh trail, Vietnam neighbours - Loas and Cambodia who were sympathetic towards the Viet Cong, it damaged NVs war effort and supply routes, communists wouldn’t give up and still launched major assault on the south, civilian casualties helped turn Vietnamese people against the Americans |
| US tactics and troops - search and destroy | US commander general Westmoreland set up US bases in south Vietnam where helicopters full of troops would descend in a village and search and destroy any Viet Cong sources they found |
| US tactics and troops - search and destroy problems | raids were often based on little information, inexperienced US troops often walked into traps, innocent villages were mistaken for Viet Cong strong holds - for every Viet Cong weapon captured there was a body count of 6 many being innocent civilians, pushed peasants towards supporting Viet Cong |
| US tactics and troops - chemical weapons | agent orange - toxic “weed killer” sprayed from planes into jungles where viet cong hid, napalm - destroyed jungles where gurilles might hide and also burned through skin to bone, many civilians and children were also harmed by these |
| US tactics and troops - conscription and morale | In the early stages, most troops were professionals, so morale was high. However, as more soldiers were needed, conscription was introduced. From 1967, many conscripts were young men with no prior military experience and lacked the passion, leading to low morale. To address this, generals implemented a one-year term of service, but this backfired as soldiers left just as they gained experience. |
| the tet offensive | war was going well for US and SV from 1965-1967 killing large numbers of VC, early 1968 VC attacked over 100 cities and military targets, one VC commando unit tried capturing the US embassy in Saigon, US forces had to fight to regain control room by room, around 4500 viet cong fighters tied down a much larger US and SV force in saigon for 2 days |
| why was the tet offensive bad for communists | tet offensive was somewhat a disaster for communists as they hoped people would join them. VC lost around 10,00 experienced fighters and were badly weakened |
| why was the tet offensive bad for US | raised hard questions like, there was close to 500,000 troops in vietnam and USA was spending $20B a year so why were VC able to launch a massive attacked taking US forces by surprise, US and SV forces quickly retook the towns captured but they used lots of artillery and air power killing many civilians and destroying the ancient city of Hue was this right? |
| the peace movement in the USA - cost | war was draining money that could be used for better purpose in the USA and despite spending all the money USA didn’t seem close to winning the war |
| the peace movement in the USA - inequality | drafting exposed racial inequality with 30% of African Americans compared to 19% of white Americans, 22% of US casualties were black Americans despite them only making up 11% of the total US force, Muhammad Ali refused to join the army as it went against his faith so he was stripped of his world title and his passport was removed, black power groups argued how they could fight for a country that discriminated against them |
| the peace movement in the USA - purpose | most damaging of all, an increasing number of Americas felt deeply uncomfortable about what was going on in Vietnam |
| Americans wondering what they were fighting for | many reporters and photographers sent photos back to the USA of the fighting. Newspapers showed crying children being burned by napalm bombs and many other horrific casualties. This was shocking to the average American because was this why 900,000 young Americans had been drafted? Vietnam had become a symbol of defeat, confusion and moral corruption |
| protests against the Vietnam War | Anti-war protests, led by students and civil rights campaigners, peaked between 1968 and 1970. Over 100 demonstrations involved 40,000 students, often featuring the burning of the American flag, a criminal offence. Students taunted President Johnson with chants. In late 1969, nearly 700,000 anti-war protesters gathered in Washington, DC, marking the largest political protest in American history. |
| the my lai massacre - how did it happen and why | in March 1968 a unit of soilders called Charlie's Company started a search and destroy mission. They were told that there was a VC headquarters in my lai and 200 VC guerillas. They were ordered to destroy everything, as villagers were all supposed to be at the market. March 16 they arrived and within the next 4 hours 300–400 civilians were killed. Most were women, children and old men, some were killed in the fields, some at home. Many were mowed down by machine gunfire as they were herded into an irrigation ditch. No VC were found. |
| the my lai massacre - the letter | at the time it was a success, with the commanding officer's report saying 20 non-combatants were accidentally killed, with the rest recorded as VC. 12 months later a letter arrived in a head office in Washington written by a soldier who served in Vietnam and knew many of the soldiers taking part in the massacre and had evidence something not right had happened and asked congress to investigate |
| the my lai massacre - investigation | soon after, life magazine published photos of the MLM taken by an army photographer, this started an investigation ending in a trial for mass murder of Luitenanat William Calley he was an officer in CC and shot many people. in September 1969 he was formally charged with murdering 109 people. Ten other members were also charged. |
| the my lai massacre - aftermath | outcomes were shocking to Americans, the charges were overwhelming for the army, so they placed the blame on calley saying that he was acting under orders and his senior officers were found not guilty. After a court case with lots of media, he was found guilty of murder of 22 civilians. In August 1971 he was sentenced to 20 years hard labour |
| ending the war in vietnam | after the Tet Offensive Johnson concluded they couldn’t win the war militarily and officials began negotiating for peace, he also announced he wouldn't seek re-election as an admission of failure and both new candidates said they would try to end the war. It was now a question of how to get out of the war without looking defeated |
| a new president tries to end US involvement in vietnam war | Nixon was elected and his nation security adviser worked to end US involvement in the war but it was hard because they didn’t want to appear to hand Vietnam to the communists |
| peace treaty in vietnam | In pairs January 1973 all parties signed a peace agreement and by March 1973 all american forces had left Vietnam, within 2 years south Vietnam had fallen to the communists. women and children tried to clamber aboard American helicopters which was a bleak image. after 30 years of conflict communists had won |
| how vietnam was a failure for the US | failed militarily - not even the US military power could stop the spread of communism
failed strategically - the bombing also turned loas and cambodians against democracy and by 1975 they both had communists governments
propaganda disaster - the americans were seen to be propping up a government that didn’t had the support of its own people |
| how vietnam was a success for the US | improved relations with China and the Soviet union that by the 1970s they both got along with the US better than they got along with eachother, US also became suspicious of involving their troops in a conflict they couldn’t overwhelming win |
| social impact of the war on germany | huge gaps in the living standards of the rich and the poor, one and a half million demobilised soldiers returned to society |
| economic impact of the war on germany | industrial production AND national income was 2/3 of what it had been in 1913, war left 600,000 widows and 2 million children without fathers - by 1925 the state was spending 1/2 of its budget on war pensions |
| political impact of the war on Germany | stresses of war led to a revolt in Oct - Nov 1918 with fighting between left and right wing groups, many ex-soldiers and civilians despised the new democratic leaders and believed that the heroic Field Marshal Hindenburg had been betrayed by weak politicians |
| what did the left wing want | a communist revolution |
| what did the right wing want | they wanted their kaiser back |
| threats from the left | Spartacists led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg and made up of rebel soldiers and sailors. Spartacists launched their bid for power, but Ebert made an agreement with the army and the freikorps to end the rebellion. Street fighting and heavy casualties followed, but the freikorps won and Karl and Rosa were killed. Another rebellion happened in Bavaria but, Ebert used the same tactics and crushed the revolt in May 1919 with around 600 communists killed. In 1920 there was communist agitation in the Ruhr but this time with 2000 casualties |
| threat from the right | Made up of some anti-communist ex-soldiers and people who were successful under the kaiser and resented the ToV and blamed ebert for agreeing too. In March 1920 Dr Wolfgang Kapp led 5000 freikorps into Berlin - this was known as the Kapp Putch. The army refused to fire on the Freikorps as they were veterans, and ebert thought he was doomed. A general strike was declared bringing Berlin to a halt and eventually Kapp realised he couldn't succeed and fled but was hunted down and died while awaiting trial |
| Terms of the Treaty of Versailles | Germany lost - 10% of its land, all of its overseas colonies, 12.5% of its population
in addition - its army was reduced to 100,000, it wasn't allowed to have an air force, its navy was reduced, Germany had to accept blame and was forced to pay reparations |
| Who was to blame for the signing of the Treaty of Versailles | Ebert was reluctant to sign the Treaty but had no choice as Germany could not go to war, however Ebert and the Weimar were blamed for the treaty. Germans believed they had been betrayed by the governments who didn't dare to continue the war. The reparations bill was announced in April 1921 for 6600 million to be paid in early instalments of 2% of Germany's annual output. |
| the occupation of the Ruhr | In 1922, Germany failed to pay reparations. President Ebert tried negotiating, but France, needing to pay its war debts to the USA and lost patience. In January 1923, French and Belgian troops legally occupied the Ruhr to take reparations in raw materials and goods. The German government ordered a strike, but the French killed 100 workers and expelled 100,000 protesters. The strike halted industrial production, causing the collapse of the German currency. |
| hyperinflation | Due to a lack of goods for trade, the Government resorted to printing money, paying off debts with worthless marks including war loans of over 2200 million. This led to hyperinflation, making money practically worthless. Wages were paid daily instead of weekly. Middle-class Germans lost their savings' value rapidly as what could have bought a house in 1921, couldn't even buy a loaf of bread in 1923 |
| stresseman came in to fix hyperinflation | The passive resistance in the Ruhr was ended. Worthless marks were called in and burned, replaced by the Rentenmark. American loans were secured under the Dawes Plan, and reparations payments were renegotiated. However, hyperinflation damaged the Weimar Government politically. Right-wing opponents blamed them for the crisis, linking it to the Treaty of Versailles and reparations. Many Germans never forgave the government. |
| Stresemanns achievements - the economy | Stresemann led Germany to prosperity through the Dawes Plan, which spread reparations and brought in US loans. Investments modernized industry and funded public works, creating jobs. By 1927, industry matched pre-war levels, making Germany the world's second-largest industrial power. Wages rose, living standards improved, and welfare benefits increased, driven by growing exports and stable finances. |
| Stresemanns achievements - politics | Politics stabilized after 1923, with no attempted revolutions. Pro-Weimar parties gained support, with moderate parties securing 136 more Reichstag seats than radical ones by 1928. Hitler's Nazis received less than 3% of the vote in the 1928 election. Some parties that had cooperated in the 1918 revolution resumed cooperation, indicating growing acceptance of the Weimar Republic. |
| Stresemanns achievements - culture | Cultural revival blossomed, fuelled by new freedoms of expression. Writers, poets, and artists flourished, particularly in Berlin. Some condemned political and business leaders, while other artworks depicted the traumas of war. The Bauhaus movement revolutionized design and architecture, rejecting tradition for innovation. German cinema thrived, introducing stars like Marlene Dietrich and directors like Fritz Lang. |
| Stresemanns achievements - foreign policy | Stresemann's foreign policy triumphs included signing the Locarno Treaties in 1925, ensuring stability by guaranteeing Germany's western borders. Germany's acceptance into the League of Nations in 1926 marked a diplomatic success. Quietly and steadily, Stresemann worked on reversing Treaty of Versailles terms, focusing on reparations and eastern frontiers. By his death in 1929, he negotiated the Young Plan, easing reparations, and secured the removal of foreign troops from the Rhineland. |
| Stresemanns failures - the economy | The economic boom in Weimar Germany was dependent on US loans, which could be recalled suddenly, leading to economic ruin. Workers in large industries saw improved pay and conditions, but rising unemployment, reaching 6% by 1928. Peasant farmers and parts of the middle class suffered, with overproduction and debt plaguing farmers, and small business owners feeling threatened by large department stores. |
| Stresemanns failures - politics | Despite relative political stability, Weimar Germany saw the growth of Nazi and Communist party organizations. Frequent changes in chancellors highlighted coalition fragility, while around 30% consistently voted against the Republic. Concerning, right-wing groups like the DNVP and Nazis collaborated, seeking respectability. |
| Stresemanns failures - culture | Weimar culture was vibrant to many, but for some in rural Germany, it symbolized moral decay. The Bauhaus design college relocated to Dessau due to hostility from Weimar officials. The Wandervogel movement emerged in response, advocating for a return to rural values and less urban decadence. This feeling was exploited later by the Nazis |
| Stresemanns failures - foreign policy | Stresemann faced criticism from nationalists for joining the League of Nations and signing the Locarno Pact, as it implied acceptance of the Treaty of Versailles. Communists also opposed Locarno, viewing it as a threat to the Soviet government. |
| history of Hitler and the Nazi party (1919-1921) | The Nazis began as the German Worker's Party, led by Anton Drexler. In 1919 Hitler joined and Drexler realised he had talent and quickly put him in charge of propaganda. In 1920 the party announced its 25 point program and renamed itself the National Socialist German Workers Party or Nazis for short. In 1921 Hitler removed Drexler as leader. Hitler gave the people someone to blame for Germany's problems. |
| start of the SA/brownshirts | Hitler's meetings were so successful his opponents tried to disrupt them, so Hitler set up the SA in 1921. They protected his meetings but also disrupted other parties meetings |
| The Munich Putsch | By 1923, the Nazis, gained prominence despite being a minority. Capitalizing on the economic crisis, Hitler attempted a coup in November. He seized a Bavarian government meeting, announcing his takeover, with support from Ludendorff. SA seized official buildings, but government forces retaliated the next day. In a brief clash,16 Nazis were killed. The rebellion collapsed, with Hitler fleeing and Ludendorff captured. Hitler's gamble failed, marking a significant setback for the Nazis. |
| the aftermath of the Munich Putsch and Hitler's trial | in the short-term, it was a disaster for Hitler, and he was humiliated. However, his trial gained massive publicity as everything he said was reported in newspapers. Hitler impressed the judge so much he got off with only 5 years, however only served 9 months and used this time to write Mein Kampf, Ludendorff freed altogether. |
| the Nazi's in the wilderness | Hitler realised that Nazis had to gain power through democracy before destroying it and after being released he started rebuilding the Nazi party. Hitler saw communists building up strength through youth organisations and recruitment drives so the Nazi's started doing the same. Their candidates stood in Reichstag elections for the first time in May 1924 and won 32 seats, which encouraged hitler, and he set up the Hitler Youth |
| a change in Nazi strategy | in 1927 the Nazis were trying to appeal to German workers but they either supported socialists or communists. in the 1928 elections, the Nazis gained only 12 seats. they had failed to win over the workers. |
| the Nazis targeting the farmers | While some segments of society thrived during Weimar Germany, others struggled. The Nazis found support among groups like peasant farmers and middle-class shopkeepers who felt left behind by economic progress. With about 35% of the population still rural, many felt excluded from prosperity. The Nazis appealed to peasants, promising aid and praising them as racially pure Germans. They contrasted rural simplicity with urban decadence, gaining support from conservatives who viewed Weimar culture as immoral. |
| strengthen the SA and the rise of the SS | In 1925, Hitler enlarged the SA. 55% of the SA were unemployed, and many were ex-servicemen from the war. He also set up the SS, loyal to him personally. By 1928, party membership rose to over 100,000 |
| propaganda within the Nazi party | Joseph Goebbels took charge of Nazi propaganda and was efficient. Him and Hitler believed the best way to reach 'the masses' was by appealing to their feelings not rationally. Goebbels produced posters, leaflets, films and radio broadcasts and organised rallies for 'photo opportunities'. |
| result of propaganda electorally | no electoral breakthrough. In 1928, they had the support of less than 3%. The success of Stresemann made Germans uninterested in extreme politics |
| the depression | In 1929, the American stock market crash triggered a global economic depression. Germany was hit hard, with American losses prompting demands for repayment of loans, leading to economic collapse. Bankruptcies soared, workers were laid off, and unemployment surged. Compounded by reparations from the Treaty of Versailles, Germany faced severe challenges. The government tries to act but the Weimar Constitution, with its careful balance of power, made firm and decisive action by the government difficult. |
| enter the Nazi's during the great depression | Hitler's ideas were now relevant - the Weimar government is indecisive? Germany needs a strong leader, reparations adding to Germany problem? kick out of ToV, unemployment is a problem? let them join the army. The 25 point plan was attractive to the unemployed, elderly and the middle class. Hitler gave everyone someone to blame for Germany's problems. He got support for these now as the democratic parties couldn't get Germany back to work. |
| Nazi election results during the depression | In the 1930 elections the Nazis gained 107 seats and in November 1932 they got nearly 200. They didn't have an overall majority, but they were the biggest single party. |
| Why did the Nazis succeed in elections - Nazi campaigning | Hitler was amazing at campaigning. He ran for president in 1932 despite losing his profile was raised hugely, Nazi posters and pamphlets were found everywhere. Nazi rallies impresses people with their energy, enthusiasm and size. They relied on generalised slogans to avoid being clear on what it meant in terms of policies. This made it hard to criticize them, but if they were criticized for a policy, it would be dropped. Nazis also organised soup kitchens and provided shelter in hostels for unemployed |
| Why did the Nazis succeed in elections - negative cohesion | people supported Nazis not because they shared Nazi views, but because they shared Nazi fears |
| Why did the Nazis succeed in elections - disillusionment with democracy | Politicians were unable to tackle the problems of the depression. When the depression started, Chancellor Bruning cut government spending and welfare benefits and urged Germans to make sacrifices. Bruning called new elections in 1930 which was a bad decision as it gave the Nazis the opportunity to exploit the discontent in Germany. Unemployment was heading towards 6 million, and the average German's income had fallen by 40% since 1929. |
| Why did the Nazis succeed in elections - the communist threat | As the economic crisis deepened, Communist support surged, which the Nazis exploited by leveraging 'fear of communism.' Street clashes between communist gangs and police escalated, contrasting with the disciplined image of the SA and SS. Business leaders, alarmed by the prospect of state control and growing trade union strength, saw the Nazis as protection. Farmers, wary of communist land seizures, looked to the Nazis for support amid their struggles. |
| Why did the Nazis succeed in elections - decadence | The Nazi's counted on all those who felt traditional German values were under threat. The Nazis talked about restoring these old-fashioned values |
| Why did the Nazis succeed in elections - weak opposition | The Social Democratic Party thought Germans wouldn't fall for vague promises. They also failed to work with other parties like the communists. Eberts crushing of the communists in 1919-1920 left lots of bitter memories and the Nazis exploited divisions among their opponents |
| Why did the Nazis succeed in elections - the result | Nazi support rocketed. Especially, middle class Germans supported Hitler in villages, towns and cities across Germany. In rural communities, the Nazis gained many votes from those who shared their views about the decadent cities. |
| How did Hitler become chancellor | Following the July 1932 elections, the Nazis secured 230 seats, making them the largest party but lacking a majority. Despite Hitler's demand for chancellorship, Hindenburg, suspicious of him, refused. In December 1932, Hindenburg appointed Kurt von Schleicher instead. However, in January 1933, seeking Reichstag support, Hindenburg reluctantly appointed Hitler after secret negotiations. Hitler's chancellorship resulted from a behind-the-scenes deal with German aristocrats, who naively believed they could control him. |
| The Reichstag Fire | Hitler called for another election for March 1933 to try to get an overall majority, however this was not at all guaranteed. February 27th the Reichstag building burnt down. Hitler blamed the communists and said it was the beginning of an uprising. He demanded 'special emergency powers' and was granted them. The Nazis used these powers to arrest communists, break up meetings and frighten voters. |
| The enabling act | The Nazis won their largest ever share and with the help of the Nationalist Party Hitler had an overall majority. Using the SA and the SS, he intimidated the Reichstag into passing the enabling act, and only the SPD voted against him. after the election, the communists had been banned. This made Hitler a virtual dictator. For the next 4 years, if Hitler wanted a new law, he could just pass it. However, Hitler's power was not fully consolidated yet. |
| The night of the long knives | Within a year, opponents of the Nazis had either left Germany or been taken to concentration camps. The army did not trust the SA or its leader Ernst Rohm and neither did Hitler as he feared his control over the 4 million SA men. On the weekend of 29-30 June, squads of SS men killed Rohm and other leading figures in the SA and arrested them. Hitler accused Rohm of plotting to overthrow and murder him. Over the weekend, Rohm and as many as 400 others were executed, including former chancellor Von schleicher. |
| The army oath | Hindenburg died on the 2nd of August 1934 and Hitler took over as Führer. On the same day, the entire army swore an oath to Hitler. They agreed to stay out of politics and to serve Hitler. In return, Hitler spent a lot on rearmament, bought back conscription and made plans to make Germany a great military power again. |
