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Questions and Answers List

level questions: Level 1

Question	Answer
a reaction to a situation, whether real or a thought experiment, that expresses the opinion that what has been described is morally acceptable or unacceptable.	Moral intuition
in moral philosophy, the idea that statements about morality can have a validity that goes beyond subjective opinion, often involving the idea that moral ideas are somehow grounded in the nature of reality or are valid for all people at all times.	Objectivism
also known as moral relativism or ethical relativism. The doctrine that morality is relative to each culture and that there is no overarching theory to assess or compare the moralities of all cultures.	Cultural relativism
ordinary moral views, which are often used as a test for moral theories: Do they contradict commonsense morality?	Commonsense morality
a form of objectivism claiming that values are in some sense real objects that exist in the world	moral realism
Plato's version of moral realism, in which perfect values exist outside the empirical world, whereas what we encounter in the world are imperfect copies.	form of the good
using a word in more than one sense in an argument. Generally, to do so renders the argument invalid.	equivocation
a family of views that gives great weight to individual liberty and autonomy, accepting that different individuals and groups have different values. Liberalism opposes the idea that anyone has the right to impose their moral ideas on anyone else.	Liberalism
the view that each society has the right to live according to its own values, and no other society has the right to interfere. It differs from cultural relativism in accepting the universal value of noninterference.	Pseudo-relativism
the view that the truth about morality is to be determined by each person for himself or herself. There are no universal moral standards that limit or constrain what any individual may think on moral questions.	Individual subjectivism
also known as moral relativism or ethical relativism. The doctrine that morality is relative to each culture and that there is no overarching theory to assess or compare the moralities of all cultures.	cultural relativism
the idea that there is nothing to morality at all. There are no moral truths or standards of right or wrong action.	moral nihilism
the theory that human beings are, in some way, psychologically compelled to follow their own interests.	psychological egoism
the theory that the right thing for a human being to do is always to follow his or her own interests.	moral egoism
Nietzsche's proposal that it is necessary to reassess all traditional values to determine whether in fact they are actually valuable.	revaluation of all values
a disposition of character that leads a person to reason, feel, and act in a morally admirable fashion.	virtue
A disposition of character that leads to a person to reason, feel, and act in a morally problematic fashion.	vice
Nietzsche's assessment of the traditional-largely Christian- morality of his time: that it was fit only for slaves.	slave morality
the view that the truth about morality is to be determined by each person for himself or herself. There are no universal moral standards that limit or constrain what any individual may think on moral questions.	individual subjectivism
in moral philosophy, the idea that statements about morality can have a validity that goes beyond subjective opinion, often involving the idea that moral ideas are somehow grounded in the nature of reality or are valid for all people at all times.	Objectivism
sometimes used as a synonym for emotivism, although sometimes used as a broader term, suggesting that moral judgments express something other than emotions, such as attitudes.	expressivism
the idea that moral judgments are not strictly speaking capable of being true or false but in fact express our emotions.	emotivism
the view that moral judgments do not state genuine "cognitions" or beliefs, and therefore cannot be true or false. Emotivism and Expressivism are examples of noncognitivist positions.	noncognitivism
a distinction formulated by Bernard Williams. Thick ethical concepts, such as "courageous"," have a particular or descriptive content as part of their meaning. Thin concepts, such as "right," do not.	thick and thin ethical concepts
a view associated with J.L. Mackie. It argues that moral judgments express genuine beliefs, but since no objective moral values exist they are all false, for all moral judgments presuppose the existence of objective moral values.	error theory
J.L. Mackie's argument that objective moral values would be such odd and unusual entities that they could not exist.	argument from queerness
the philosophical study of what we can know, and how we can know it.	epistemology
the philosophical study of the universe	metaphysics
the theory that human beings are, in some way, psychologically compelled to follow their own interests.	psychological egoism
the theory that each individual has a moral duty to pursue his or her own self-interest.	ethical egoism
an argument in which, if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. In a logically valid argument, negation of the conclusion contradicts the premises, and this is how the logical validity of an argument can be tested.	logical validity
in normal circumstances any action is motivated by an agent's belief and desires. According to some moral theories, such as Kant's, an action has moral worth only if it is done for the right moral reasons.	moral motivation
adherence to a view without giving proper weight to evidence or arguments that might cast doubt on it.	dogmatism
a biological theory proposing that genes have a built-in drive to preserve the identical gene either in the same individual or in other individuals.	selfish gene
the theory that people who are closely related are likely to behave altruistically toward each other. It is highly compatible with the theory of the selfish gene.	kin altruism
the theory that groups whose members display altruistic concern toward each other are more likely to survive and flourish than groups that do not display such concern.	group altruism
the theory that altruism can or will emerge through mutual cooperation between individuals.	reciprocal altruism
the case where an individual relies on the cooperation of others without themselves offering cooperation.	free riding
initially a member of a group of Ancient Greek philosophers who were paid by wealthy Athenians to help them develop their skills of reasoning. Now a term used to describe someone who willfully engages in fallacious reasoning to pursue his or her own interests.	sophists
a family of views in moral and political philosophy in which the authority of morality, or of the state, is said to rest on the agreement, in some sense, of the people.	social contract
it is valuable in itself. It is possible for something to have both intrinsic and instrumental value	intrinsic value
it is valued not purely in itself but because it is likely to help bring about something else of intrinsic value. It is possible for something to have both intrinsic and instrumental value.	instrumental value
an area of economics and psychology that attempts to reduce social situations to formal structures (or "games"). Doing this allows researchers to model the available strategies and to determine, by mathematics and probability theory, which is the optimum "move" in each case.	game theory
a two-person situation or game in which the pursuit of each person's self-interest leads to a worse outcome for both of them than they could have achieved through cooperation.	prisoner's dilemma
public goods are goods that, if supplied at all, can be enjoyed by people who have not paid for them- for example, street lights on a public road. Such goods are regarded as a problem because the apparently rational strategy for any individual is to wait for someone else to pay for their supply; but if everyone does this, the goods will never be supplied, even if they are collectively beneficial. See free riding.	public goods problem
an idea introduced by John Rawls to ensure that in applying social contract theory, we are not biased by our own interests. Accordingly, Rawls suggests that we should make our agreement assuming that we do not know personal facts about ourselves, such as our race, religion, sex, talents, family background, values, and so on.	veil of ignorance
the situation of people behind the veil of ignorance.	original position
a measure of subjective wellbeing; closely related to happiness and pleasure.	UTILITY
making a comparison between two areas of knowledge or investigation in the hope that what is known about one area will bring insight into another area.	analogy
presenting an exhaustive set of options (i.e., a set including all possibilities) and providing compelling objections to all but one, thereby leaving one as the undefeated option.	argument by elimination
another name for a circular argument	begging the question
An argument that uses what is intended to be the conclusion as a premise in the argument. Because it assumes what it is attempting to prove, it does not prove anything.	circular argument
measuring and comparing the happiness of one person with that of another.	interpersonal comparisons of utility
the idea that human beings are able to perceive right and wrong through some sort of built-in capacity.	moral sense
the idea that a second unit of good typically yields less pleasure or happiness (utility) than the first, and so on. Typically used as part of an argument that maximizing utility favors equal distribution of goods.	DIMINISHING MARGINAL UTILITY
any theory that judges the morality of an action by its consequences. It normally defines the right (right action) in terms of the good. For example, utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory because it defines the right in terms of maximizing the good (happiness or utility). Compare to deontology.	consequentialism
defines right action in terms of following duties, rather than in achieving desirable consequences. Deontological theories generally define the right independently of the good. Compare to consequentialism.	deontology
a truth is contingent if, although true, we can imagine circumstances in which it would have been false.	contingency
a version of utilitarianism that defines right action in terms of whatever action maximizes happiness or utility. Compare to rule utilitarianism.	act utilitarianism
the theory that although utilitarianism is true, happiness will be maximized if ordinary people are taught it is false and the truth reserved for the moral elite.	government house utilitarianism
an action is right if it conforms to a rule that leads to the greatest good.	rule utilitarianism
overriding an individual's own choices on the grounds that another course of action would be better for them, as a parent may do for a child.	paternalism
an approach to ethics focusing on individual character, building on the concepts of virtue and vice.	virtue ethics
a major school of Ancient Greek Philosophy. had views on a range of topics, but in moral philosophy they emphasized the importance of moral reason and the rejection of the emotions as an influence in moral decision-making. They also emphasized the importance of our inner states rather than outward show or achievement.	stoicism
a disposition of character that leads a person to reason, feel, and act in a morally admirable fashion.	virtue
the idea that certain laws exist independent of human action. Such laws are often believed to be discoverable by natural reason.	natural law
in Aristotle, the idea of "practical wisdom" or knowledge of how to act	phronesis
Aristotle's notion of human well-being. Sometimes translated as "happiness", although "flourishing" may be a more accurate rending.	eudaimonia
in Kant's system, the fundamental principle, or command, of morality. Compare to hypothetical imperative.	categorical imperative
knowing	knowldge that and knowledge how
the foundation of my morality is a system	of my rights
individual rights over collective rights	moral individualism
as many people, as many rights	moral relativism
moral normal is built upon my decision (=my will)	moral constructivism
morality is what we have agreed upon	moral conventionalism
morality has to be useful or helpful	moral pragmatism
from all my moral rights the most important is my right to be happy	moral hedonism
adds moral subjectivism, moral passion, moral sentimentalism, moral altruism	david hume
is a driving force of morality	moral passion
morality is a set of subjective moral beliefs	moral subjectivism
not all pleasure are equal	cultural hedonism
excellent cultural education for every child is moral	john stuart mill
political democracy is moral	john stuart mill
protection of women's right's is moral	john stuart mill
protection of minorities' rights is moral	john stuart mill
unlimited individual freedom (still limited)	john stuart mill
no censorship. law of land is nonnegotiable limit on freedom	john stuart mill
the objective results of my actions for the well-being of my society are more important than my intentions	utilitarianism
moralism: moral values are the foundation of social life	Nietzsche
only healthy moral values make the society functional	Nietzsche
social darwinism	nietzsche
modern situation with the western civilization is very unhealthy	nietzsche
civilization is unhealthy because the western man has become very weak	nietzsche
weakness: excessive self love, hedonism, love for comfort and safety	nietzsche
the western woman has historically defeated the western man	Nietzsche
we live in a post feminist society	nietzsche
feminism: a moral philosophy based upon the values of love, compassion, charity, and welfare	nietzsche
why are we in a post feminist society according to nietzsche?	christianity
who was the first feminist according to nietzsche?	jesus
where did nietzsche work as a professor?	basel university