In terms of pedagogical content knowledge, describe the several ways one can represent a topic for students:

1. Using examples. Examples are useful when you're teaching a well-defined topic (Renkl, 2011). Illustrations and demonstrations are also forms of examples. 2. Using case studies. Together with vignettes (short case studies), they effectively illustrate complex topics that are hard to represent with simple examples. 3. Using metaphors. A teacher can say that the loyalty students show to their school, their way of talking and their weekend activities as a metaphor for the concept of nationalism. 4. Using simulations. Simulations are effective because they provide concrete models that illustrate complex systems and process (de Jong, 2011). Students can role-play as members of Parliament to pass a law that will shape the country. 5. Using models. Models allow students to visualise something they can't observe directly. For example, a science teacher uses a model of an atom to help students visualise the nucleus and electrons.