Gender- Psychology Paper 3
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| 🇬🇧 | 🇬🇧 |
| What is gender schema? | Mental representation of all knowledge we have on gender and knowledge of behaviours considered appropriate for each gender |
| Things to remember? | Gender schema, in group and outgroup |
| What are the two studies called? | Martin and Henderson and |
| What is gender schema for children in terms of in-group and outgroup | Children tend to have a much better understanding of the schema appropriate to their own gender(ingroup). They pay more attention to the information relevant to their own gender.By the age of six, children stop ignoring out-group schemas as their cognition develops |
| What age does gender develop | Gender Identity develops about 2-3. They look around in their external environment gathering information constantly |
| What are some similarities with the Kohlberg Theory? | Children's understanding of gender increases with age |
| What is the study for gender schema(Martin and Henderson) | Martin and Henderson asked young children under the age of six to recall pictures of people and found they recalled more gender-consistent pictures (such as a male footballer) than gender-inconsistent pictures (such as a female lorry driver), supporting the idea of gender schema negatively affecting memory for behaviour that is gender-inconsistent |
| How is gender schema theory reductionist(GST) | Focuses solely on cognitive schemas as the source of gender-appropriate behaviour, neglecting both biological and social contexts. However, it could become more holistic if it considered the role of differences in socialisation by parents. |
| What is a limitation of Gender schema Theory(GST) | Cannot explain why some girls may prefer action figures and some boys may prefer dolls |
| What is the other study for gender schema(Todd et al) | Todd et al (2016) carried out a naturalistic observation of nursery school age children and toy preferences and it showed that both boys and girls aged between 9 and 32 months showed strong preferences for gender-consistent toys: boys showed a preference for trucks and cars, while girls gravitated toward dolls and similar toys. This suggesting gender identity motivates young children to engage in gender-consistent behaviour |
| What is an advantage?(EXPLAINS WHY CHILDREN ARE MORE LIKELY TO RECALL AND IMITATE GENDER CONSISTENT BEHAVIOUR RATHER THAN GENDER INCONSISTENT) | Explains why children are more likely to recall and imitate gender-consistent behaviour rather than imitating gender-inconsistent behaviour.(Refer to Todd's study) |
| What is a limitation of Gender schema Theory(GST) | Gender schema theory does not fully explain why gender schemas develop in the way that they do, because it focuses too much on cognitive factors and not enough on social factors like parental influence and peer pressure |
| What are the two studies called? | Martin and Henderson and Todd et al |
| Things to remember? | Gender schema, in group and outgroup, studies for gender schema~ todd et al, why its reductionist, adv+disadv |
| What are the three stages of Kohlberg's thepry of development | Gender Identity- 2-3 Gender Stability- 4 Gender Constancy- 6 |
| What does Kohlbergs Theory suggest | Children go through specific stages in understanding gender identity. |
| What is gender identity in the Kohlberg stage | Children can label themselves and other people as male or female but base their judgements only on outward appearances. They lack realisation gender is fixed |
| What is gender stability | The recognition that gender identity does not change over time. |
| What is gender constancy? | Children understand that their gender is fixed and doesn't change over time. |
| What is Bem's study and a limitation | 40% of children age 3-5 years were able to demonstrate gender constancy if they were shown the doll naked first. Thus the child was making judgements on physical differences rather than clothing. Suggests the typical way of testing gender constancy(presenting them with dolls dressed in gender-specific clothing) may misinterpret what younger children actually know |
| What did Munroe suggest? | Studies in non-Western cultures like Kenya and Samoa show that children follow Kohlberg’s stages of gender development at similar ages as children in Western cultures, suggesting these stages are likely universal meaning the cognitive changes Kohlberg described may be based in biology rather than just cultural influences. |
| Whats another strength and limitation?(GUIDES EDUCATORS TO MAKE AGE APPROPRIATE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS. NEGLECTS SOCIAL INFLUENCES) | Understanding these stages can help guide educators making age appropriate learning environments that foster healthy gender identity development, helping address issues related to gender stereotyping. Neglects social Influences, underestimating the role of socialization and environmental factors like cultural norms and parental influence. |
| Things to remember | Kohlberg's stages of development, Bem's study and limitation, Munroe |
| What is androgyny? | Having a high number of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes and behaviours |
| What is the study for androgyny? | The Bem Sex Role inventory(BSRI). 200 personality characteristics were given to 100 judges and they were asked to rate how much the traits represented maleness and femaleness. The traits that scored the highest became the 20 masculine and feminity traits on the scale. Additionally 20 characteristics wee chosen which were neutral and these 60 traits were made up to BSRI.These 60 traits made up the BSRI and it was measured on a Likert scale. These scores were cklassified on two dimensions- masculinity-femikinity and androgynous-undifferentiated. |
| What is the limitation of BSRI? | People may not have insight into their gender identity; asking people to rate themselves on a questionnaire relies on people having an understanding and personality that they may not necessarily have. The scoring system is also hypothetical and gender is subjective meaning BSRI may not be an objective and scientific way of assessing gender identity Temporal validity- it was developed over 40 years ago and regarded as acceptable in those times but now gender has changed |
| What is the belief about androgynous? | It is believed to be more psychologiclly healthy to display a mixture of masculine and femeinine chacterstics in your personality rather than only one.. In today's soceity people need to be adaptable without saying that one job is a woman's work and another job is just for men |
| A strength of the BSRI? | The BSRI piloted over 1000 students and the results correspond with the participants own description of gender identity, demonstrating validity |
| Things to remember? | Freud's understanding of gender identity, |
| Things to remember? | Freud's understanding of gender identity, |
| What stage is each resolved at ? | Oral stage- 0-1= No concept of gender identiy and children are neither masculine nor feminine Anal Stage- They begin to associate certain behaviours with gender norms, which influence their understanding of gender roles. Phallic stage- 3-6= Boys experience the oedipus complex and girls experience electra complex |
| Things to remember? | Freud's understanding of gender identity, |
| What does the oedipus complex suggest? | Boys suffer from castration anxiety and so fear their father, but at the same time despise their father for standing in the way of the boy realising their sexual desires felt towards the mother.As the child comes to terms with the fact that they will be unable to express their feelings, they instead identify with their father and internalise his values, through the process of internalisation. |
| Freud's understanding of gender identity? | Gender identity develops in the phallic stage; each psychosexual stage including the phallic stage is characterised by a conflict which is either Oedipus or electra complex |
| What are the Oedipus and Electra complex a result of? | A child’s attempt at resolving the conflict of gender and it occurs at the end of the phallic stage. |
| What does the Oeipus complex suggest? | Boys suffer from castration anxiety and fear and despise their father for standing in the way of the boy realising their sexual desires felt towards the mother. However, as the child comes to terms with the fact that they will be unable to express their feelings, they instead identify with their father and internalise his values, through the process of internalisation. |
| What does the electra complex suggest? | Girls suffer from penis envy instead. This is where girls in the phallic stage despise their mother for not providing them with a penis, the girl identifies with the mother a after accepting that she is not an ‘obstacle’ that can be removed. |
| What is the conclusion | Oedipus and Electra Complexes are important ways to resolve psychosexual conflicts that occur during the phallic stage and help develop gender identity |
| What is a limitation of the psychodynamic explanation of gender?(EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE, INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES | Some concepts like the Oedipus and Electra complex lack strong empirical evidence and are often criticized for being difficult to test scientifically. Doesn't account for individual differences in personality and experience that can lead to variations in gender identity beyond the parent-child relationship. |
| What's a strength?(FIRST PERSON TO HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANCE OF CHILDHOOD IN MENTAL HEALTH) | He was the first person to highlight the importance of childhood in mental health This idea is still used today when considering gender disorders like gender dysphoria| This can offer explanations on why gender disorders develop such as failure to overcome the oedipus complex and contribute to therapies as a way to support people |
| Things to remember? | Freud's understanding of gender identity,oedipus and electra complex, conclusion |
| What is the typical sex chromosome pattern and what is the atypical one? | Typical sex chromosome pattern for males is XY and for females, is XX. However, atypical sex chromosome patterns can result in Klinefelter’s Syndrome for males, and Turner’s Syndrome for females. • Klinefelter’s Syndrome is characterised by the genotype XXY |
| What are features of people with Klinefelter syndrome? | Facial and physical characteristics are similar to that of a female e.g. a soft face with no prominent jawline and gynecomastia (development of breasts). From a psychological viewpoint, individuals with Klinefelter’s Syndrome are generally clumsy perhaps due to their long limbs and achieve poorer than average scores on tests assessing visuo-spatial and reading skills. |
| What is Turner syndrome and its features? | A genetic condition where females have only one X chromosome. They have male-like physical traits such as broad shoulders and neck but an absence of menstrual cycles and ovaries. typically have strong reading skills but face challenges with social communication and visuo-spatial tasks. |
| What gender does Klinefelter and Turner affect | Klinefelter - Males Turner - Female |
| What's an advantage of Atypical Sex Chromosomes(RECOGNIING ATYPICAL PATTERNS HELP DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT+ EARLY HORMONAL THERAPIES. REDUCES STIGMATIZATION) | Recognizing atypical patterns enables early diagnosis and treatment, leading to better health outcomes. early hormonal therapies e.g testosterone replacement therapy can address growth issues or other hormone-related symptoms, leading to better physical health outcomes. Reducing Stigmatization: Increased awareness and understanding reduce stigmatization of people with atypical sex chromosomes, fostering environments where individuals are more accepted and supported. |
| What is a disadvantage? | Defining "atypical" depends on subjective views of "typical." Since gender is socially constructed, traits like social skills in Turner’s Syndrome might seem typical to some but atypical to others. This highlights the lack of an objective measure for evaluating these syndromes' impact on the debate. |
| Things to remember? | Chromosomes, |
| NA | NA |
| Things to remember? | Chromosomes, |
| What are chromosomes? | Small sections of DNA containing genes which code for proteins and hormones. important for the development of a foetus as either male or female. |
| What is oxytocin? | The ‘love hormone’ provoking feelings of intimacy and closeness. Women have higher levels of oxytocin than men, which may contribute to the stereotype that women are more caring and affectionate than men, as well as the male focus on sex rather than intimacy in relationships. It also has an evolutionary advantage - it is released in high concentrations before and after birth, allowing the mother to bond with her baby and recover from childbirth through the suppression of cortisol (the ‘stress’ hormone) |
| Why is the Y chromosome important? | It signals the foetus to develop as a male due to the presence and activation of the SRY gene which produces androgens. hormones trigger the development of the male reproductive organs (testes) and production of testosterone at higher concentrations |
| What is testosterone+short study? | The male hormone controlling development of male sex organs- High levels of it is linked with increased levels of aggression served an evolutionary purpose in terms of increasing the ability of the male to protect their female, reducing the likelihood that she will be impregnated by a competing male and so increasing the likelihood of the survival of the male’s genes.Van de Poll found female rats who recieved an injection of testosterone become more physically and sexually aggressive |
| Evidence that supports the role of hormone in gender development? | Christina Wang- male hypognodanism which is a condition where the male testes fail to produce the right amount so instead they have testosterpme therapy for 180 days. There was a significant increase in muscle strength and all the other factors they were monitoring therefore it shows testosterpmne has a high influence on male physical development in adulthood |
| What is a counterpoint for that study? | Other evidence on the effect on testosterone makes it unconvincing. Darryl O Conor found increased testosterone levels in healthy young men and there were more significant interactional or non interactional components of sexual behaviours |
| What is oestrogen? | It determines female sexual characteristics. During the menstrual cycle females experience heightened emotions caused by PMT( pre menstrual tension) and in extreme cases it's been successfully used as defence in court for cases of female shoplifters or even murderers |
| What is oxytocin? | The love hormone and promotes feelings of intimacy and closeness. Women have higher levels of oxytocin than men, which may contribute to the stereotype that women are more caring and affectionate than men. |
| What are disadvantages?(REDUCTIONIST,BIOLOGY AND DISCRIMINATION) | Explaining gender through chromosomes and hormones ignores its complexity. Gender is more than just biology; it includes social and cultural aspects. Using biology to explain gender differences can lead to justifying discrimination. For example, medicalizing female anger as "hormonal" (e.g., PMS) can undermine women, reinforcing stereotypes and inequality. |
| Things to remember? | Chromosomes and why the Y chromosome is important, testosterone, oestrogen, oxytocin, disadv(reductionist,biology and discrimination) |
| What does SLT suggest? | Learning occurs through experience and is learnt either directly (through operant or classical conditioning) or indirectly (through vicarious reinforcement) |
| What does SLT suggest in terms of reinforcement? | Reinforcement increases the likelihood that the observed behaviours will be imitated, whilst punishment decreases this likelihood. |
| What is differential reinforcement? | Children are specifically rewarded by their parents for displaying gender-appropriate behaviours e.g. girls being calm and affectionate towards others. This reinforces gender stereotypes and contributes to the child’s gender identity. |
| How can learning occur indirectly? | Through vicarious reinforcement. A child sees another same-sex child being rewarded for displaying gender-appropriate behaviours, who is considered to be a role model. The observer then imitates this modeled behaviour in hopes to get a similar reward. This is helped by the 4 mediational (cognitive) processes which are attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation. |
| What is strength of SLT? | Bandura's research on observational learning show that children imitate the behaviour of same-sex role models, particularly when these behaviors are reinforced. This aligns with SLT’s view that gender roles are learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. |
| What is a limitation of SLT | SLT downplays innate biological factors (e.g., hormones, genetics) that influence gender behavior such as the effects of testosterone on aggression or sex-linked brain differences. |
| What is the study for social learning theory? | The researchers observed 32 mothers playing with a 6-month-old baby.The mothers were misled about the baby's gender—some were told the baby was a boy, others were told it was a girl. The babies were dressed in gender-neutral clothing. When mothers believed the baby was a boy they were more likely to offer "masculine" toys, like the squeaky hammer and encouraged active and vigorous play. When they thought the baby was a girl, they offered "feminine" toys, like a doll and encouraged gentler and more nurturing play. Shows adults use differential reinforcement based on the stereotypes of gender appropriate behaviour from infancy |
| Things to remember? | What SLT suggests, Reinforcement- vicarious and differential reinforcement, Study for social learning theory |
| What is culture and view gender roles? | A large group of people who share the same belief, traditions and attitude. Most cultures use male and female sex categories, suggesting biological and universal elements to gender roles. However, different cultures can have vastly different expectations about gender roles. |
| How does media exposure influence gender stereotypes | Excessive exposure to gender stereotypes in the media can lead to changes in gender behaviour. Individuals more exposed to stereotypes hold stronger beliefs about gender roles compared to those with less exposure. This effect is often seen when people identify with or admire figures in the media(models). McGee and Freuh found that greater exposure to popular media leads to more stereotypical views and behaviors. |
| What is an example of media stereotypes? | Action hero- males are praised rewarded and glorified for being strong aggressive and tough. Boys vicariously learn these behaviours are acceptable for them to perform and are part of being a male |
| What did Margaret Mead's 1935 study in New Guinea reveal about gender roles? | Margaret Mead's 1935 study in New Guinea demonstrated that gender roles are culturally constructed and not solely biologically determined. She observed significant variations among tribes like the Arapesh, where both men and women were gentle and nurturing, and the Mundugumor, where both sexes were aggressive and warlike. This suggests that while individuals may have a biological predisposition toward certain behaviors, cultural and media influences play a significant role in shaping gender roles.. her interpretations may have been influenced by her own cultural perspectives, leading to subjective conclusions Therefore it's important to be self aware and critically assess their own cultural assumptions to ensure they do not inadvertently influence their interpretations. |
| What's a strength | Research into influence of culture on gender development show how globalisation may be contributing to a reduction in the differences between masculine and feminine gender roles, implying cultural influences are stronger than biological ones e.g in Margaret Mead's study for the Arapesh both men and women were gentle and cooperative, reflecting behaviors traditionally associated with femininity in Western cultures. |
| What's a limitation?(TIME ON SOCIAL MEDIA LEADING TO STONGER GENDER STEREOTYPE IS JUST CORRELATIONAL EVIDENCE) | The fact that those who spend a lot of time on social media, TV and video games hold stronger gender-stereotyped beliefs is correlational evidence, not necessarily indicating media to be the cause of such attitudes |
| Things to remember? | Culture and how it views gender roles, media exposure influencing gender stereotypes, margaret mead's study |
| Things to remember? | Gender dysphoria |
| What is gender dysphoria? | An example of atypical gender development that is described as a gender identity disorder. Gender dysphoria is feeling uncomfortable or distressed because your gender identity (who you feel you are) doesn’t match the sex you were assigned at birth. |
| Biological explanations of dysphoria and disadvantage? | Genetics, hormones and brain differences It's reductionist to say gender identity is biologically determined but perhaps hormonal and genetic factors do produce the conditions in some people that make them more predisposed to gender dysphoria during childhood. But this identity persists onto adulthood depending on social psychological experiences as they age. Thus an interactionist approach for gender development is needed |
| Explanation from brain differences? | The BSTc is typically larger in males compared to females.Zhou et al found that in male-to-female transgender individuals, the BSTc is closer in size to that of females. This means BSTc might influence gender identity as BSTc size aligns more with a person’s experienced gender rather than their biological sex which is why some feel their gender identity differs from their biological sex |
| Hormonal explanation? | If the growing foetus is exposed to unusual levels of testosterone this could lead to a change in gendered behaviour. Overexposure in female foetus leads to masculinisation and underexposure leading to feminisation |
| Genetic explanation? | Variation in genes leads to a biological process that changes gender expression. e.g less testosterone produced leading to feminine behaviour |
| What are some social psychological explanations for gender dysphoria? | If the child is rewarded by the parent for cross-gendered behaviour, they'll be more likely to repeat cross gendered behaviour(positive reinforcement) eventually developing gender dysphoria. Social learning theorists agree and add that children who observe non-gender conforming role models being rewarded will be more likely to do cross gendered behaviour through vicarious reinforcement in hopes they'll also be rewarded. Also cross gender behaviour is more likely if there are few same-sex models available. |
| Social psychological research? | Littman (2019) conducted interviews with parents of adolescents with gender dysphoria and found that parents felt that this was a case of positive reinforcement from peers leading to these young people developing the disorder |
| What is an advantage of the biological and social explanations of gender dysphoria | Biological research can lead to successful hormone treatment for gender dysphoria Research suggests that social explanations for gender dysphoria have to be accepted when there are no physiological brain differences to be found between those with gender dysphoria and those who do not experience it |
| What is a disadvantage of the biological and social explanations of gender dysphoria | There is a lack of empirical evidence for a social explanation - even Littman’s research (above) had to be withdrawn and revised substantially to show that this was just parental opinion |
| How does this link to issues and debates? | Both biological and social-psychological explanations are reductionist, focusing solely on one cause and oversimplifying the complexity of gender identity. Explanations assume gender identity disorder is determined either by biological factors or social influences, ignoring individual differences. Social explanations overlook the possibility that the child may have been privately behaving as their experienced gender before gaining external reinforcement. Acknowledge a hormonal predisposition to preferring the opposite gender, potentially reinforced by social factors (e.g., parental/peer approval). Recognize that gender dysphoria is multifaceted, with individuals experiencing it in diverse ways and for different reasons. |
| What is the psychodynamic expalantion for gender dysphoria | The child didn't successfully resolve the oedipus complex. Since they didn't identify with the same sex parent they have not internalised their gender identity leading to gender dysphoria. This could be due to absence of same sex parent |
| Things to remember? | Gender dysphoria, biological explanation and brain difference explanation, genetic, social psychological explanation |